EVERYDAY 
PEDAGOGY 

LINCOLN 


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EVERYDAY    PEDAGOGY 

WITH   SPECIAL  APPLICATION 
TO  THE  RURAL  SCHOOL 


BY 


LILLIAN  I.  LINCOLN 

SUPERVISOR  OF  TRAINING  IN  THE  STATE  NORMAL   SCHOOL 
FARMINGTON,  MAINE 


GINN  AND  COMPANY 

BOSTON  •  NEW  YORK  •  CHICAGO  •  LONDON 
ATLANTA  •  DALLAS  •  COLUMBUS  •  SAN  FRANCISCO 


COPYRIGHT,  1915,  BY  LILLIAN  I.  LINCOLN 

ALL  RIGHTS   RESERVED 

616.1 


GINN  AND  COMPANY  •  PRO- 
PRIETORS •  BOSTON  •  U.S.A. 


L45 


PREFACE 

No  claim  is  made  that  the  ideas  here  set  forth  are  new. 
The  best  of  them  are  very  old.  Some  of  them  are  told 
more  than  once  in  this  book,  but  those  are  the  ones  it  has 
been  found  necessary  to  tell  many  times  to  student  teachers. 
The  material  is  in  part  oversimple,  and  in  part,  perhaps, 
overelaborated.  It  has  been  made  so  purposely.  In  those 
things  that  might  be  called  faults  lies  the  merit  of  the 
work,  if  it  has  any  merit.  The  plans  herein  given  are 
practical  not  theoretical,  most  of  them  having  been  tried 
in  our  own  school  and  gathered  through  close  association 
with  many  teachers.  They  are  stated  in  the  way  which  has 
seemed  to  meet  the  needs  of  young  teachers  in  everyday 
work. 

Not  all  the  books  and  other  material,  nor  all  the  ideas, 
are  supposed  to  be  used  by  any  one  person.  Enough  has 
been  suggested  to  leave  freedom  for  choice.  In  cases  of 
doubt,  application  has  been  made  to  the  rural  school, 
though  most  of  the  suggestions  will  serve  as  well  for 
any  other  school. 

Repeated  requests  for  information  along  these  lines  and 
a  long-continued  service  in  connection  with  young  teachers 
in  training  classes  and  institutes  have  furnished  the  occa- 
sion for  the  making  of  the  book.  It  is  hoped  that  the 
volume  may  be  of  practical  value. 

[iii] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

The  writer  wishes  to  take  this  opportunity  to  express 
her  indebtedness  and  gratitude  to  Payson  Smith,  LL.D,, 
Litt.D.,  Superintendent  of  the  PubHc  Schools  of  Maine. 
His  kindly  assistance  and  encouragement  have  been  un- 
failing. His  corrections,  suggestions,  and  additions,  made 
in  connection  with  the  reading  of  the  manuscript,  have 
added  much  to  its  practical  value, 

LILLIAN  I.  LINCOLN 
State  Normal  School, 
Farmington,  Maine 


[iv] 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.   THE  TEACHER i 

II.   THE  TEACHER'S  EQUIPMENT 7 

III.  THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING  AND  GROUNDS .    .    .  15 

IV.  APPARATUS  — ITS  SOURCES,  CARE,  AND  USE  25 
V.    STARTING  IN 44 

VI.   GOING  ON 57 

VII.  THE  PHYSICAL  COMFORT  OF  THE  CHILD.    .  67 

VIII.    MORNING  EXERCISES 88 

IX.   ARITHMETIC 95 

X.    READING 112 

XI.   DICTIONARY  STUDY 128 

XII.    SPELLING 132 

XIII.  LANGUAGE 142 

XIV.  THE  PICTURE 152 

XV.   THE  POEM 155 

XVI.   THE  STORY 166 

XVII.   GEOGRAPHY 178 

XVIII.   HISTORY 191 

XIX.   NATURE  STUDY 199 

XX.    DRAWING 215 

XXI.   WRITING 222 

XXIL    MUSIC 228 

XXIII.   DESK  WORK 234 

[V] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

CHAPTER  FACE 

XXIV.   INDUSTRIAL  WORK 244 

XXV.    SPECIAL  EXERCISES 259 

XXVI.   THE  RECITATION 264 

XXVII.   PLAY 277 

XXVIIL   DISCIPLINE 282 

XXIX.   CONCLUSION 299 

INDEX 303 


[Vi] 


INTRODUCTION 

It  is  trite  to  say  that  the  success  of  a  school  system  is 
to  be  measured  in  terms  of  the  efficiency  of  the  teaching 
force. 

Yet,  in  a  day  when  the  emphasis  on  system  and  machin- 
ery is  great,  it  is  worth  while  to  reiterate  that  plans,  policies, 
and  theories  for  the  improvement  of  education  are  effective 
only  in  the  degree  that  they  find  expression  in  the  life  of 
the  individual  school  and  that  this  expression  must  come 
by  means  of  the  individual  teacher. 

To  make  the  teacher  more  efficient  is  to  make  the  school 
better,  hence  improvement  of  the  teacher  remains  the  im- 
portant function  of  the  educational  machinery  we  establish. 

Much  stress  is  laid,  in  the  work  of  teacher  improvement, 
on  the  need  of  the  widest  possible  knowledge  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  of  the  principles  underlying  successful  in- 
struction and  school  management.  Happily  there  is  no 
longer  any  serious  discussion  of  the  desirability  of  this 
knowledge.  One  may  as  well  admit,  however,  that  general 
information  in  regard  to  the  theories  of  education  is  not 
of  itself  a  guaranty  of  eifective  teaching.  Unless  these 
theories  find  concrete  expression  in  daily  practice,  the 
knowledge  of  them  is  quite  without  value. 

It  happens  not  infrequently  that  teachers  —  and  espe- 
cially beginning  teachers  —  find  themselves  embarrassed  in 

[vii] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

a  wealth  of  theory.  How  to  summon  to  their  aid  in  a  crisis 
of  the  day's  work  just  the  principle  the  occasion  requires 
constitutes  an  educational  problem  by  itself. 

Admitting,  then,  the  very  important  place  of  the  school- 
room teacher  in  making  the  school  system  effective,  and 
emphasizing  the  necessity  of  a  sound  basis  in  educational 
theory  for  schoolroom  procedure,  we  find  there  must  be  a 
large  place  for  those  who — whether  by  book,  lecture,  or  ser- 
mon—  shall  aid  teachers  to  interpret  their  theories  into  sane 
educational  practices.  Progress  in  the  making  of  better 
schools  will  be  less  halting  and  hesitating,  will  be  less  dis- 
turbed by  unnecessary  repetitions  of  experiments  and  by 
much  traveling  of  bypaths  with  profitless  ends,  as  teachers 
find  ways  of  coming  in  contact  with  the  experiences  of 
other  teachers  and  especially  those  whose  business  it  has 
been  to  test  daily  in  the  crucible  of  experience  the  freshly 
wrought  theory. 

This  book,  reflecting  a  thorough  study  of  schoolroom 
needs  on  the  one  hand  and  of  carefully  tested  theory  on 
the  other,  with  their  constant  application,  cannot  fail  to  bring 
to  any  teacher  that  satisfying  inspiration  which  results  from 
the  worthy  accomplishment  it  will  help  to  bring.  Especially 
to  those  thousands  of  teachers,  who,  in  rural  and  other  small 
schools,  must  rely  so  considerably  upon  their  own  resources 
its  pages  will  bring  constant  help. 

PAYSON  SMITH 

Augusta,  Maine 


[viii] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  TEACHER 

Preparation  for  the  work.  There  are  certain  things 
in  the  way  of  preparation  that  will  soon  be  absolutely  de- 
manded of  the  young  person  who  wishes  to  teach.  Even 
now,  every  one  who  plans  to  be  a  teacher,  if  only  for  a 
little  while,  should  demand  of  herself  that  she  have  the 
equivalent  of  a  good  high-school  course  followed  by  normal- 
school  training.  This,  at  least,  is  essential  if  she  is  not  to 
waste  much  precious  material  in  unwise  experimentation. 
She  may  indeed,  by  direct  school  practice  and  careful  ob- 
servation, gain  skill  in  her  calling  without  this,  but  she  will 
always  be  hampered,  as  is  one  who  picks  up  a  trade,  by 
lack  of  knowledge  of  the  best  ways  of  going  about  things. 
She  will  waste  time,  energy,  and  material,  and  will  fall 
short  of  what  her  success  might  have  been  if  she  had 
been  well  prepared  for  her  work. 

School  training  not  sufficient.  The  high-school  and 
normal  courses  should  form  the  foundation  upon  which  a 
young  teacher  should  build  her  power.  They  should  be 
supplemented  continuously  by  reading,  both  general  and 
particular ;  by  travel,  though  one  may  be  a  good  teacher 
without  having  gone  to  Europe ;  by  school  visiting ;  and 

[I] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

by  attendance  at  teachers'  meetings  and  conventions.  If 
teaching  becomes  a  life  work,  there  may  come  a  time  when 
a  convention,  a  school-visiting  day,  or  an  educational  book 
may  bring  only  one  or  two  new  ideas,  but  a  single  idea  is 
worth  working  for  at  that  point,  and  the  stimulus  of  such 
things  is  of  more  value  than  can  be  counted.  Many  teach- 
ers feel  that  when  once  they  are  graduated  from  normal 
school  or  college  and  placed  in  a  school,  no  further  work 
is  necessary.  Such  teachers,  somewhat  undesirable  to  start 
with,  grow  more  so  with  every  additional  year  of  service. 

Personal  appearance.  A  teacher's  personal  appearance 
is  also  of  moment.  She  may  not  be  beautiful,  but  she 
should  look  beautiful  to  the  children  —  a  thing  surprisingly 
easy  to  accomplish  if  one  goes  about  it  with  intention. 
The  first  essential  is  good  health,  which  may  usually  be 
attained  by  proper  attention  to  food,  exercise,  rest,  and 
sleep.  A  teacher  should  not  remain  in  a  boarding  place 
in  which  the  food  is  insufficient  or  unpalatable,  either  to 
save  a  few  pennies  or  to  spare  her  landlady's  feelings. 
She  should  not  make  her  chief  articles  of  diet  candy  and 
pickles,  nor  serve  herself  continuous  lunches  through  the 
evening.  She  should  not  omit  her  out-of-door  exercise 
because  of  the  miles  walked  in  school,  nor  her  rest  on 
account  of  uncorrected  papers,  nor  her  sleep  because  of 
school  worry  or  social  dissipation. 

Dressing  properly  also  helps  to  preserve  good  health 
and  has  undoubted  effect  in  production  of  beauty.  Too 
thin  clothing  in  cold  weather  causes  great  waste  of  energy 
in  keeping  warm.  If  the  room  is  right  for  study,  one 
ought  not  to  be  uncomfortable  in  reasonably  warm  clothing. 
The  teacher  who  goes  to  and  from  school  and  to  the 

[2] 


THE  TEACHER 

playground  at  recess  with  no  greater  protection  against 
cold  and  damp  than  that  given  by  the  regular  indoor  dress 
is  not  only  endangering  her  own  health,  but  is  setting  a 
poor  example  to  the  children.  Again,  school  dress  should 
be  suitable  for  school.  The  schoolroom  is  not  the  place 
for  wearing  out  one's  old  silk  dresses.  It  is  not  necessary 
for  a  teacher  to  have  many  or  expensive  clothes,  but  those 
she  does  have  should  be  appropriate  to  the  occasion. 
Children  like  change,  so  the  element  should  be  furnished, 
not  usually  by  many  different  dresses,  but  by  the  collar, 
ribbon,  or  bit  of  embroidered  tie,  that  will  delight  the  eyes 
of  the  little  people  and  not  take  much  from  the  teacher's 
scanty  funds.  By  her  own  scrupulous  care  of  hair,  teeth, 
and  nails  the  teacher  should  stimulate  the  desire  for  per- 
sonal daintiness  in  her  pupils. 

A  child's  admiration  for  his  teacher  is  a  great  help  in 
discipline.  Children  are  always  delighted  to  tell  of  their 
pretty  teacher.  Mothers  are  invited  to  come  to  school  to 
see  how  attractive  she  is.  One  mother  was  invited  to  come 
in  the  afternoon,  because  the  teacher's  hair  seemed  to  curl 
best  then.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  children  to  raise 
hands  and  ask  the  teacher  to  come  to  them  for  a  minute, 
while  they  confide  admiration  for  dress  or  ring  or  touch  of 
beauty.   It  pays  to  make  one's  self  look  well  to  the  school. 

Of  even  more  importance  are  manner  and  speech.  If 
a  phonograph  could  be  set  up  secretly  in  our  schoolrooms, 
and  we  could  hear  at  night  all  we  have  said  during  the 
day,  repeated  with  the  monotonous  tone,  or  the  irritation, 
or  the  whine,  which  are  so  often  there,  many  of  us  would 
not  sleep  so  easily.  If  we  had  these  remarks  to  analyze 
and  parse,  our  remorse  would  often  be  still  greater,  and  we 

[3] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

should  cease  to  wonder  that  the  children's  language  lessons 
do  so  little  for  them.  A  teacher  should  be  as  polite  to  her 
pupils  as  she  requires  them  to  be  to  her.  Her  every  word 
and  deed  should  suggest  the  courtesy  that  she  wishes  to 
teach.  Too  often,  in  demanding  obedience  and  politeness 
in  the  schoolroom,  the  teacher  uses  tones,  and  even  words, 
that  would  not  be  tolerated  elsewhere. 

Position  in  the  community.  A  teacher's  personality 
counts  for  much  in  a  community.  Sweet  temper,  sympathy, 
an  interested  and  animated  attitude  toward  life  in  general 
and  school  life  in  particular,  tact,  common  sense,  a  will- 
ingness to  take  hold  and  help  whenever  help  is  needed, 
a  sturdy  dignity  when  dignity  is  desirable  —  all  these  will 
go  far  to  aid  the  teacher  in  making  and  holding  a  right 
place  for  herself  in  the  schoolroom  and  in  the  children's 
homes.  She  is  in  a  position  to  be  of  much  service  to  the 
young  people  of  the  neighborhood.  A  little  girl  once  said 
to  her  mother  in  regard  to  the  teacher :  "I  love  her, 
mamma.  I  touch  her  dress  as  she  goes  by."  "  Does  she 
know  it.?"  asked  the  mother.  "Oh,  no;  but  I  love  her 
so,  I  like  to  touch  her."  Another  child  bent  in  humble 
adoration  and  kissed  the  teacher's  hand  as  she  stood  by 
his  desk  a  moment  during  a  recitation.  These  things  being 
so,  how  can  a  teacher  lower  herself  to  lend  the  force  of 
her  example  toward  making  slang  the  regular  language  of 
the  boys  and  girls,  or  to  associate  with  them  on  any  but 
the  highest  plane  !  A  complaint  was  once  made  concerning 
a  teacher  that  through  her  one  of  the  pupils  made  her  first 
acquaintance  with  the  question  of  beaus,  the  teacher  having 
spent  her  time  in  the  discussion  of  no  other  subject  when 
in  the  girl's  company. 

[4] 


THE  TEACHER 

A  teacher  should  not  enter  in  any  way  into  the  neigh« 
borhood  quarrels  that  in  many  places  exist  perennially  and 
do  their  worst  toward  lowering  the  community  spirit  and 
ideals.  She  should  identify  herself  with  the  life  of  the 
people  with  whom  she  is  working,  call  upon  them,  attend 
their  social  gatherings,  and  mingle  with  them  freely,  but 
she  should  not  forget  that  her  business  is  to  teach  school, 
that  her  position  tends  to  make  her  an  example,  that  her 
life  should  be  lived  worthily,  and  that  she  must  keep  her- 
self above  reproach.  If  she  is  musical,  she  should  be  will- 
ing to  help  out  in  that  line,  but  she  should  not  sacrifice 
her  regular  work  for  it.  If  she  dances  or  plays  cards,  she 
may  do  both  in  moderation,  unless  the  community  as  a 
whole  objects  to  these  amusements.  She  should  be  sure 
that  she  permits  attentions  only  from  young  men  of  good 
standing,  and  then  only  to  a  reasonable  extent.  In  many 
communities  teachers  receive  eagerly  the  attentions  of 
young  men  who  are  looked  down  upon  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. Any  teacher  who  knows  all  the  men  in  the  place 
in  a  few  weeks,  or  who  is  the  subject  of  conversation  in 
stores  or  on  street  comers,  is  doing  herself,  her  school, 
and  her  profession  a  serious  injury.  If  the  community  as 
a  whole  does  not  respect  her,  she  might  much  better  give 
up  her  school  and  go  home  before  further  mischief  is 
done.  Even  with  every  intention  of  doing  right  a  teacher 
often  finds  herself  too  deeply  involved  socially  to  be  at 
her  best  for  school  work.  In  general,  Friday  and  Saturday 
evenings  may  be  given  to  amusement,  but  the  others 
should  usually  be  employed  in  finishing  the  work  of  the 
day,  preparing  for  the  morrow,  reading,  resting,  and  such 
occupations. 

[  5  ] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Attitude  toward  school  officers.  The  attitude  of  the 
teacher  toward  her  superintendent,  her  principal,  or  her 
associate  teachers,  if  there  are  such,  should  be  cordial  and 
friendly.  She  should  be  open  to  suggestion  and  should 
give  her  opinions  when  they  are  desired,  but  should  not 
force  them  into  notice.  She  may  not  always  agree  with 
her  superintendent,  but  she  should  remember  that  he  is 
in  authority  and  is  usually  aiming  at  the  same  result  that 
she  is  —  the  good  of  the  school.  He  may  have  ideas  with 
which  she  so  disagrees  as  to  make  the  position  difficult  for 
her,  but  while  she  stays  she  should  be  subordinate  to  his 
direction.  It  is  well  for  a  teacher  to  talk  over  school  con- 
ditions freely  and  to  ask  for  things  needed  for  the  work, 
but  she  should  not  at  every  meeting  with  the  superintendent 
overwhelm  him  with  complaints,  with  demands  for  working 
material  or  for  help  in  discipline,  or  with  requests  for  an 
increase  in  salary. 

The  teacher  makes  the  school.  This  first  chapter  is 
given  to  the  teacher,  because  she  is  the  important  thing 
in  any  school.  The  room  may  be  unpleasant  and  poorly 
equipped,  the  books  worn  and  out  of  date,  the  neighbor- 
hood undesirable,  the  school  officers  difficult  in  many 
ways,  and  still  the  school  may  be  of  value ;  but  if  the 
teacher  is  not  right,  the  term  can  never  be  profitable. 
A  teacher  should  take  to  her  school  every  possible  aid,  but 
she  herself  must  be  the  greatest  thing  of  all.  She  must 
have  the  spirit  of  the  mother  and  the  missionary,  and  this 
will  usually  supply  her  with  ways  and  means  to  conquer 
the  situation. 


[6] 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  TEACHER'S  EQUIPMENT 

Why  needed.  A  wise  teacher,  disregarding  the  fact  that 
school  authorities  are  supposed  to  furnish  all  things  need- 
ful for  school  work,  equips  herself  with  many  small  neces- 
sities, to  tide  her  over  waiting  times  and  to  supplement 
supplies.  It  is  right  that  a  superintendent  should  be  asked 
to  furnish  what  is  needed,  and  a  teacher  is  rarely  ranked 
the  higher  for  asking  little ;  yet  through  indifference  of 
authorities,  lack  of  funds,  or  other  causes,  a  school  is  often 
hampered  in  its  work  unless  the  teacher  fills  the  gap  and 
provides  that  which  it  may  not  be  her  place  to  provide, 
but  which  it  is  hard  to  do  without. 

The  equipment  box.  Every  teacher  should  secure  a 
large  wooden  box  having  a  cover,  hinged  if  possible,  that 
may  be  screwed  down,  and  provided  with  a  padlock  or 
other  fastening.  It  should  also  be  fitted  with  rope  handles, 
that  it  may  be  shipped  as  baggage.  This  box  should  be 
the  home  of  her  school  equipment  and  should  be  kept  at 
the  school  building.  The  advantage  of  the  box  is  that  if 
one  takes  the  material  in  a  trunk,  one  gets  along  with 
little,  and  that  little  must  be  conveyed  to  school  bit  by  bit. 
The  equipment  should  include  the  following  things  at 
least,  with  such  others  as  may  occur  to  the  teacher. 

Books.  A  teacher's  collection  should  contain  educational 
books  and  books  meant  for  relaxation.     The  educational 

[7] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

books  include  those  intended  for  the  teacher  only  and  those 
to  be  used  by  her  and  the  children.  Every  teacher  should 
have  a  library,  and  every  teacher  should  have  at  hand  what 
may  serve  as  a  library  for  the  children.  The  books  best 
suited  for  the  purpose  are  usually  those  to  be  obtained  from 
the  firms  that  publish  schoolbooks.  Most  of  them  are  in- 
expensive. The  teacher  may  acquaint  herself  with  them 
through  the  samples  displayed  at  teachers'  conventions,  and 
to  a  certain  extent  by  the  study  of  publishers'  catalogues. 
Dealers  will  usually  be  willing  to  send  books  to  be  looked 
over ;  these  may  be  retained  if  they  prove  to  be  what  is 
desired,  the  money  and  the  remaining  books  being  returned 
at  once.  A  teacher  should  aim  to  start  a  permanent  school 
library  immediately,  if  she  does  not  find  one  established,  but 
it  will  take  time  to  acquire  a  library  of  any  size,  and  in  the 
meantime  the  books  that  go  in  the  teacher's  box  will  have 
to  serve.  As  has  been  said,  most  of  them  are  cheap.  They 
may  be  purchased  a  few  at  a  time,  —  as  few  as  must  be 
each  term,  —  but  their  value  in  saving  time  and  friction, 
furnishing  spice  for  the  regular  lessons,  and  establishing 
a  bond  of  sympathy  between  teacher  and  pupils  will  make 
them  worth  considerable  sacrifice  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 
It  was  said  in  the  last  chapter  that  the  teacher  should  have 
the  spirit  of  the  mother  and  the  missionary,  and  the  mis- 
sionary who  has  formed  the  taste  of  a  child  community  for 
the  right  kind  of  books  has  performed  a  saving  service  to 
mankind.  The  children  should  be  welcome  to  use  the 
books  from  the  teacher's  outfit  in  preparing  their  lessons, 
for  filling  in  spare  minutes  otherwise  wasted,  and  for 
entertainment  at  noon  and  before  school,  and  should  be 
allowed  to  take  them  home  when  they  wish.    The  parents 

[8] 


THE  TEACHER'S   EQUIPMENT 

often  get  as  much  from  the  books  as  the  children  do. 
"  Papa  and  I  were  talking  of  Damon  and  Pythias,"  said  a 
seventh-grade  boy  to  his  teacher.  "  Would  you  let  me  take 
home  your  '  Stories  of  the  Greeks '  for  a  day  or  two,  so  we 
can  read  it  again  together.!*"  "As  long  as  you  please," 
said  the  teacher,  and  the  book  stayed  a  fortnight,  and  both 
father  and  son  were  pretty  well  up  in  Greek  history  when 
it  came  back.  Even  where  there  is  a  public  library  the 
teacher's  books  are  often  preferred,  partly  because  failure 
of  memory  does  not  mean  a  fine,  and  partly  from  a  feeling 
that  the  books  are  a  little  more  desirable. 

It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  enumerate  the  books  best 
fitted  for  the  box,  but  many  of  them  are  of  the  sup- 
plementary-reader kind.  A  list  of  such  is  included  in  the 
chapter  on  Apparatus.  There  are  countless  books  suited 
to  the  need.  Sixty  cents  is  the  highest  price  I  recall  for 
any  of  the  more  usual  ones.  Many  do  not  cost  half  of 
that.  They  may  all  be  read  by  the  children  with  delight. 
The  box,  starting  with  three  or  four  of  them,  may  grow 
as  fast  as  possible  to  include  many. 

The  other  class  of  books  under  the  educational  head 
includes  those  helpful  in  getting  lessons.  Every  teacher 
has  a  few  arithmetics,  language  books,  or  other  common 
textbooks.  These  should  be  taken  along,  as  they  may 
prove  useful.  There  should  be  also  books  of  special  helps 
for  different  subjects,  at  least  one  for  each  subject.  Many 
of  these  are  suggested  in  the  lists  at  the  ends  of  the 
chapters.  They  may  be  accumulated  gradually,  starting 
with  the  one  of  which  the  greatest  need  is  felt,  but  a 
teacher  should  never  rest  until  she  owns  them  all.  Back 
numbers  of  educational  magazines  should   go  along  to 

[9] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

supplement  the  one  that  will  be  received  each  month. 
These  may  be  reduced  in  bulk  if  the  teacher  chooses  to 
go  over  the  numbers  and  select  the  articles  she  finds  most 
useful,  making  them  into  a  scrapbook  collection  such  as 
is  spoken  of  later. 

Besides  the  material  mentioned  there  should  be  books 
of  poems  and  any  book  which  the  teacher  may  have  that 
will  furnish  rest  and  relaxation — general  reading  matter, 
to  serve  if  no  libraries  are  at  hand. 

Pictures.  Almost  as  important  as  the  books  that  go  into 
the  box  are  the  pictures.  We  are  awaking  to  the  work 
done  by  pictures  in  the  training  of  communities.  All  the 
magazines  are  recognizing  this,  and  we  find  them  vying 
with  each  other  in  the  beauty  and  abundance  of  their 
illustrations.  It  is  quite  possible  to  keep  well  informed  on 
most  subjects  of  general  interest  through  a  study  of  the 
illustrations  of  various  articles,  without  doing  much  read- 
ing of  the  articles  themselves.  Advertisers  content  them- 
selves with  a  striking  picture  and  a  few  words  and  do  not 
fail  to  reach  the  public.  Schoolbooks  are  equipped  with 
beautiful  and  truthful  illustrations  at  enormous  cost,  and 
the  publishers  find  themselves  paid  for  the  outlay.  The 
children  study  the  pictures  with  delight,  but  it  is  surprising 
how  indifferent  the  teachers  often  are  to  the  need  of  mak- 
ing the  illustrations  of  greater  value  by  a  judicious  use  of 
them.  Many  teachers  never  use  intentionally  even  the 
pictures  furnished  them  in  the  books.  The  child  does 
profit  by  them,  but  the  profit  may  easily  be  doubled.  Nor 
is  it  sufficient  to  use  only  those  in  the  book.  Indeed,  pic- 
tures shut  up  in  books  are  difficult  to  handle  for  class 
work,  as  one  has  to  spend  too  much  time  in  getting  at 

[lO] 


THE  TEACHER'S   EQUIPMENT 

them  and  they  cannot  be  put  up  to  be  gazed  at  for  as  long 
as  is  needed.  So  a  teacher  should  have  an  abundance 
of  pictures  in  her  equipment  box.  The  manner  of  getting 
and  using  them  is  discussed  at  length  in  the  chapter  on 
Apparatus. 

Illustrative  articles.  Every  odd  nook  and  comer  of  the 
equipment  box  should  be  filled  with  illustrative  material. 
If  the  teacher  has  any  real  curios,  so  much  the  better,  but 
it  is  not  necessary  that  this  material  be  either  odd  or  valu- 
able ;  the  little  things  that  one  might  pick  up  anywhere 
may  find  a  place  in  the  collection  —  a  bit  of  iron  plate  or 
wire,  or  any  small  metal  object ;  a  little  lump  of  each  of  the 
different  kinds  of  coal;  a  piece  of  quartz,  marble,  or  slate; 
a  bit  of  ivory,  or  bamboo,  or  rattan  ;  a  few  pretty  shells  ;  a 
box  of  mixed  spices  ;  the  dried,  clean  backbone  of  a  fish  ; 
samples  of  various  breakfast  foods  and  of  the  different 
grains  —  anything,  everything,  that  may  serve  to  brighten 
and  make  clearer  the  lessons  of  any  day. 

Many  teachers  fail  to  realize  what  such  things  mean  to 
children,  but  when  a  teacher  has  once  fallen  into  the  habit 
of  using  them,  she  thereafter  knows  their  value  and  saves 
greater  and  greater  space  in  the  box  for  them.  Teachers 
have  seen  the  objects  many  times,  so  at  first  they  seem 
common,  valueless.  The  child  has  seen  them  less  often, 
has  usually  failed  to  make  connections  between  them  and 
his  school  work,  and  is  in  the  perceptive  state,  when 
everything  that  appeals  to  the  senses  is  very  dear  to  him. 
Description  may  serve  in  many  cases  for  older  people, 
but  children  need  to  see  the  things.  The  simplest  object 
may  serve  many,  many  times.  A  few  years  ago  the  toy 
shops  contained  dolls  made  to  represent  different  races ; 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

one  teacher  gathered  in  a  number  of  these,  and  their 
appearance  was  always  greeted  with  as  much  delight  as 
if  they  were  being  seen  for  the  first  time. 

Besides  the  little  odds  and  ends  that  cost  nothing,  the 
judicious  expenditure  of  ten  cents  or  a  quarter  here  and 
there  will  in  time  produce  a  really  good  collection.  If  a 
teacher  keeps  her  eyes  open,  and  if  she  prefers  her  collec- 
tion to  ice  cream  and  certain  forms  of  entertainment,  the 
increase  is  rapid  and  the  product  becomes  worth  while. 
Besides  serving  for  illustration,  the  collection  grows  to  be 
a  great  aid  in  the  drawing  work.  Little  vases,  kitchen 
utensils,  toys,  and  the  like  reach  out  beckoning  hands  at 
every  turn. 

Material  for  desk  work.  The  teacher's  equipment 
should  contain  material  for  desk  work  for  the  little  chil- 
dren. The  most  important  of  all  is  the  hectograph,  with- 
out which  no  teacher  should  feel  herself  able  to  exist. 
Then  there  should  be  colored  papers,  sometimes  called 
oak  tag ;  outlived  calendars,  the  larger  the  better ;  colored 
sticks ;  tiny  pictures  cut  from  advertisements ;  and  other 
like  aids.  The  way  in  which  these  should  be  used  will 
be  indicated  under  the  head  of  "  Desk  Work." 

Material  for  industrial  work.  Industrial  material  is  a 
valuable  addition  to  the  contents  of  the  school  box,  and  the 
teacher  will  easily  find  at  home  many  things  which  will 
prove  useful  in  this  line.  They  may  include  bits  of  ribbon, 
velvet,  silk,  muslin,  linen,  and  flannel ;  pieces  of  denim, 
silkaline,  cretonne,  and  cheesecloth ;  balls  of  bright  wool, 
remnants  of  silkateen  or  embroidery  silk,  empty  spools, 
and  bits  of  wall  paper,  bright-colored  papers,  and  card- 
board ;  knitting  needles,  tape  needles,  bonnet  wire,  and 

[12] 


THE  TEACHER'S   EQUIPMENT 

twine.  Anything  which  may  serve  as  a  help  in  the  various 
Hnes  of  work  suggested  in  the  chapter  on  manual  training 
should  be  saved  to  go  into  the  big  box. 

Emergency  helps.  It  is  well  to  put  in  also  a  box  of 
material  that  will  be  useful  in  case  of  sickness  or  acci- 
dents. A  roll  of  old  soft  linen,  which  should  be  kept 
immaculately  clean,  a  roll  of  absorbent  cotton,  a  few  fine 
needles,  a  little  court-plaster,  small  bottles  of  camphor, 
peppermint,  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  aromatic  spirits  of 
ammonia,  and  creolin  or  sulpho-naphthol  are  the  most 
useful. 

Miscellaneous  articles.  Lastly,  the  box  may  hold  a  little 
paper  of  the  kind  known  as  arithmetic  paper,  a  little  manila 
language  paper  and  manila  drawing  paper,  a  dozen  or  so 
of  cedar  pencils,  a  few  pens,  a  tape  measure,  a  yardstick, 
a  foot  ruler,  a  few  colored  pencils,  colored  crayons,  and  a 
box  or  two  of  cheap  paints.  These  are  to  fill  in  the  gaps 
when  the  regular  school  supplies  give  out ;  periods  of  being 
"  hung  up  "  come  in  every  school. 

It  is  quite  possible  to  get  along  without  the  school  equip- 
ment box,  or  without  any  of  the  articles  mentioned,  but 
the  teacher  will  be  happier  and  her  work  will  be  far  more 
effective  with  it,  and  the  results  accruing  will  more  than 
make  it  pay  in  the  long  run.  Starting  humbly,  the  collec- 
tion will  grow  to  large  proportions,  and  such  a  box,  well 
started,  is  an  eloquent  prophet  of  future  achievements,  of 
promotions,  and  of  good  service  generally.  No  teacher  who 
has  prepared  herself  for  the  meeting  of  school  emergencies 
will  allow  herself  to  drift  into  the  attitude  of  trusting  to 
chance.  She  may  be  depended  upon  to  meet  situations 
and  conquer  obstacles. 

[13] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

REFERENCES 

Bagley.    Qassroom  Management.   The  Macmillan  Company. 
Charters.    Methods  of  Teaching.    Row,  Peterson  and  Company. 
CoLGROVE.    The  Teacher  and  the  School.   Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 
Dexter  and  Garlick.    Psychology  in  the  Schoolroom.   Longmans, 

Green,  &  Co. 
FiNLAY-JoHNSON.    The  Dramatic  Method  of  Teaching.    Ginn  and 

Company. 
Fisher.   A  Montessori  Mother.    Henry  Holt  and  Company. 
George.    Teachers'  Plan  Books.    A.  Flanagan  Company. 
Gesell.    The  Normal  Child  and  Primary  Education.    Ginn  and 

Company. 
Hall.    Aspects  of  Child  Life  and  Education.    Ginn  and  Company. 
Hughes.    Mistakes  in  Teaching.    A.  Flanagan  Company. 
Kirkpatrick.     Fundamentals   of   Child   Study.     The   Macmillan 

Company. 
McMuRRY.    Course  of  Study  in  the  Eight  Grades.   The  Macmillan 

Company. 
Montessori.     The    Montessori    Method.     Frederick    A.    Stokes 

Company. 
ROARK.    Psychology  in  Education.    American  Book  Company. 
Scott.    Social  Education.    Ginn  and  Company. 
Smith.   Systematic  Methodology.    Silver,  Burdett  &  Company. 


[14] 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING  AND  GROUNDS 

Cleanliness.  The  first  requisite  for  the  school  building 
is  cleanliness.  A  schoolroom  may  be  roughly  constructed, 
unadorned,  uncomfortable,  inconvenient,  but  there  is  little 
reason  for  its  being  dirty.  If  a  teacher  finds  it  so,  she 
should  see  that  it  is  made  clean.  Of  course,  it  is  the  jani- 
tor's business  to  see  to  this  work,  but  if  he  does  not  do 
his  work  properly,  the  teacher  should  look  after  it  herself, 
till  the  time  when  she  may  be  able  to  bring  about  an  im- 
provement in  the  janitor  service.  A  teacher  often  feels  it 
beneath  her  dignity  to  do  any  work  of  this  sort,  but  it 
demands  a  greater  sacrifice  of  dignity  to  live  in  dirt  than 
to  scrub  a  bit. 

If  the  room  is  found  littered  and  dusty,  the  teacher 
should  sweep  and  dust  it.  If  it  is  otherwise  unsightly, 
she  may  organize  the  children  into  a  brigade  for  cleaning. 
This  may  well  be  done  on  the  first  Saturday,  or,  if  that 
proves  difficult,  the  work  may  be  done  a  little  at  a  time 
after  school.  Everything  that  can  be  improved  by  soap  and 
water  should  be  looked  after.  The  scrubbing  should  in- 
clude chairs  and  desks,  though  if  these  are  varnished,  soap 
should  not  be  used  in  the  cleaning.  Children  may  scrape 
or  sandpaper  desks  and  afterwards  shellack  them,  but  the 
work  must  be  carefully  superintended.  Sandpaper  is  an 
efficient  aid  in  removing  ink  stains  from  the  floor.    If  the 

[15] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

walls  and  ceiling  are  smoked  and  discolored,  it  sometimes 
has  to  be  borne,  but  a  pail  of  whitewash  may  be  obtained, 
or  a  particularly  earnest  and  fascinating  teacher  may  be 
able  to  secure  from  the  school  authorities  paint  enough  to 
cover  the  surface,  if  she  will  get  it  applied.  Often  it  is  the 
labor  more  than  the  materials  that  it  is  difficult  to  obtain 
from  the  school  board.  Paint  is  better  than  paper  or  white- 
wash because  the  walls  can  afterwards  be  washed,  but  it 
is  more  expensive,  of  course. 

Organizing  for  permanent  improvement.  It  is  always 
well  for  a  teacher  to  organize  some  kind  of  club  whose 
purpose  shall  be  to  improve  the  appearance  of  the  school- 
room, building,  and  grounds.  Such  an  organization  may 
be  made  up  of  the  teacher  and  pupils  only,  or  it  may  be 
extended  to  include  the  parents  and  any  members  of  the 
community  who  may  be  interested  enough  to  wish  to  ally 
themselves  with  such  a  society.  Often  it  will  prove  a  strong 
bond  to  unite  teacher  and  children,  and  it  will  usually  tend 
to  produce  a  better  feeling  in  regard  to  school  property, 
which  will  result  in  improvement,  additions,  and  more 
careful  use. 

Bookcase,  school  cabinet,  and  other  furniture.  When 
the  room  has  been  cleaned,  the  teacher  should  look  over 
her  resources  and  proceed  to  make  the  most  of  them. 
She  will  probably  find  a  small  bookcase  containing  the 
school  supply  of  books.  It  should  be  her  aim  to  make 
this  grow  to  a  large  one  and  to  create  a  companion  piece 
that  shall  serve  as  a  school  cabinet.  Teachers  who  are  re- 
ceiving present-day  training  ought  to  know  how  to  con- 
struct, from  boxes,  something  that  may  be  used  for  a 
cabinet  till  a  better  one  can  be  obtained.    If  a  tall  box  is 

[i6] 


THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING  AND  GROUNDS 

stood  on  end  and  fitted  with  shelves,  and  a  door  is  made 
from  the  cover,  we  have  a  good  beginning.  The  box  may 
then  be  stained  any  suitable  color  or  covered  with  dark 
green  or  brown  cartridge  paper.  Shelves  for  books  or  for 
display  of  work  may  be  made  in  the  same  simple  way  and 
placed  wherever  an  opportunity  is  given  by  an  unoccupied 
corner  or  small  piece  of  wall  space.  A  good  table  for  many 
purposes  may  be  made  by  standing  a  small  box  on  end  and 
nailing  the  cover  of  a  large  box  to  it,  the  small  box  serving 
for  the  foundation,  the  large  cover  for  the  top.  By  such 
means  many  articles  of  furniture  may  be  obtained  which 
will  have  a  special  value  in  the  eyes  of  teacher  and  children. 

Blackboards.  There  will  be  a  certain  amount  of  black- 
board space.  If  the  board  is  in  bad  condition,  it  may  be 
bettered  by  the  application  of  blackboard  slating,  which 
comes  in  small  cans  and  may  be  put  on  easily  with  a 
brush.  If  the  board  space  is  too  small,  it  may  be  supple- 
mented by  use  of  blackboard  cloth  or  brown  paper.  Either 
of  these  materials  may  be  used  for  making  maps. 

Decoration  of  room  by  pictures.  A  clean  room  is  in  a 
measure  beautiful,  but  the  room  in  which  teacher  and  chil- 
dren are  to  live  day  after  day  should  be  more  than  clean. 
It  should  be  adorned.  There  should  be  several  pictures  — 
not  so  many  that  the  beauty  of  any  one  is  lost,  not  of  neces- 
sity expensive,  but  each  really  good  and  artistic.  It  is  pos- 
sible to  find  copies  of  many  masterpieces  unframed  and 
mounted  on  gray  paper.  Though  it  is  nicer  to  have  framed 
pictures,  the  unframed  ones  or  those  framed  with  a  passe- 
partout binding  may  serve  at  first.  It  would  be  well  for 
the  teacher  to  have  a  few  in  the  big  box.  These  she  may 
use  till  they  are  no  longer  needed,  or,  if  they  are  the  only 

[17] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

ones  she  finds  it  possible  to  get,  she  may  well  leave  all  or 
a  part  of  them  when  she  passes  on  to  the  next  school. 
One  teacher,  by  the  expenditure  of  a  dollar,  got  several 
such  pictures,  put  them  on  the  wall  with  brass-headed  tacks, 
and  was  surrounded  all  the  while  by  admiring  children. 
The  pictures  included  the  Sistine  Madonna,  the  Madonna 
of  the  Chair,  Murillo's  Saint  Anthony,  the  Saint  Cecilia 
of  Raphael,  and  other  like  subjects.  These  immediately 
took  away  the  uninhabited  aspect  of  the  place  and  were 
a  continual  source  of  pleasure  to  the  whole  school. 

Good  framed  pictures  need  not  cost  too  much.  There 
are  some  Prang  colored  prints  which  include  Mother  Goose 
subjects  that  are  particularly  pleasing  to  children  and  indeed 
to  older  people.  These  sell,  mounted,  for  fifty  cents  each. 
Framed,  they  make  large  pictures,  about  22  by  28  inches. 
It  is  better  to  order  them  unmounted  and  buy  a  sheet  of 
gray  mounting  board  for  them,  as  the  express  or  parcel-post 
charges  greatly  increase  the  cost.  Unmounted,  they  may 
be  rolled  and  sent  by  mail  for  a  few  cents.  They  should 
be  ordered  from  The  Prang  Educational  Co.,  New  York. 
The  Rhine  Prints  offered  by  Atkinson,  Mentzer,  and 
Grover  are  good  and  inexpensive.  Prints  not  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  high-priced  ones,  except  after  long  service, 
may  be  obtained  much  more  cheaply  at  the  large  depart- 
ment stores  than  elsewhere.  A  teacher  visiting  any  large 
city  would  do  well  to  look  in  such  stores  for  them.  There 
are  also  many  good  pictlires  to  be  purchased  cheaply  from 
The  Perry  Pictures  Company  and  other  like  firms. 

Sometimes  a  schoolroom  may  contain  an  unsuitable  pic- 
ture in  a  good  frame  and  the  teacher  may  make  a  substitu- 
tion.  Great  care  should  be  used  in  selecting.    In  choosing 

[18] 


THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING  AND  GROUNDS 

pictures  for  a  schoolroom,  beauty  should  be  made  the  first 
requisite.  Good  pictures  of  Washington,  Lincoln,  and 
Longfellow  are  suitable  as  subjects,  but  other  portraits  are 
not  usually  desirable,  and  a  really  beautiful  picture  is  pref- 
erable even  to  these,  though  it  is  very  fitting  that  a  Wash- 
ington school  should  have  a  picture  of  Washington.  No 
picture  at  all  is  better  than  an  ugly  one,  hanging  before 
the  school  day  after  day,  making  its  imprint  of  ugliness. 
The  pictures  should  be  hung  close  to  the  top  of  the  black- 
board, not  six  inches  above  it,  though  I  am  aware  that  I 
may  offend  some  art  critics  in  this  matter.  The  ordinary 
schoolroom  arrangements  always  make  pictures  hang  too 
high  to  be  seen  well  by  the  children,  and  long  observation 
has  convinced  me  that  the  height  is  more  to  be  considered 
than  the  space. 

Many  schoolrooms  have  been  decorated  by  means  of  the 
ever-present  "  soap  order," and  since  the  soap  order  is  bound 
to  exist,  it  might  as  well  be  of  service  here.  Entertainments 
will  often  prove  a  source  of  revenue. 

Other  decorations.  Not  only  may  the  schoolroom  be 
adorned  with  pictures,  but  often  bits  of  the  children's 
work  may  be  arranged  around  the  walls  —  bright-colored 
paper  chains  and  those  made  from  kindergarten  straws 
and  small  circles  of  colored  papers  arranged  alternately, 
pretty  cuttings,  nicely  woven  mats,  strings  of  berries  or 
seeds.  Festoons  of  green  are  suitable  at  Christmas  time, 
strings  of  pop  corn  and  cranberries  at  Thanksgiving,  and 
bunting  or  crepe  paper  on  patriotic  holidays.  None  of 
these  should  stay  up  too  long  —  not  long  enough  to  be  dust 
traps  or  to  become  tiresome.  They  serve  as  a  change  and  to 
awaken  an  appropriate  response  to  seasonable  suggestions. 

[19] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Plants.  Plants  are  invaluable  if  the  room  is  heated  so 
they  will  not  freeze.  If  there  is  not  continuous  heat  in 
the  schoolroom,  they  may  be  kept  there  in  the  fall  and 
spring,  and  some  of  the  children  may  take  them  home 
during  the  coldest  weather. 

An  aquarium,  containing  a  few  water  plants  and  any  form 
of  animal  life,  is  a  pleasing  addition  to  the  schoolroom. 

Flowers.  There  should  be  flowers  about  the  room  in 
the  flower  season.  The  children  will  bring  them  in  abun- 
dance, in  regulation  children's  bunches  —  a  little  of  every- 
thing. Many  teachers  put  them  into  dishes  without  regard 
to  the  principles  of  harmony  or  of  flower  arrangement  that 
they  have  been  taught  and  are  now  supposed  to  be  teach- 
ing to  their  pupils.  It  is  often  difficult  to  know  how  to 
avoid  hurting  the  children's  feelings  and  yet  have  artistic 
groups  of  flowers.  One  of  the  best  ways  is  to  have  a  large 
bowl  or  pan  into  which  are  put  all  unarranged  flowers. 
Out  of  this  they  may  be  taken  as  desired.  Some  are  never 
taken.  As  they  are  not  thrown  away,  no  child  has  occasion 
to  be  grieved.  His  flowers  may  be  the  next  to  come,  and 
at  any  rate  they  are  there  in  the  room. 

The  teacher  may  arrange  the  flowers  herself  or  it  may 
be  a  general  exercise  in  which  the  fitness  of  the  different 
flowers  for  each  other's  company  may  be  discussed  and  a 
selection  made.  It  should  be  remembered  that  it  is  much 
better  to  save  a  child's  feelings  of  right  and  kindness  than 
to  elevate  his  artistic  taste,  but  he  may  easily  be  trained 
to  right  ideas  of  beauty.  He  should  know  that  too  many 
flowers  should  not  be  grouped  together,  that  they  should 
have  different  lengths  of  stem,  that  they  should  be  of  one 
kind  or  of  kinds  that  seem  to  belong  together,  and  that 

[20] 


THE   SCHOOL  BUILDING  AND  GROUNDS 

there  should  be  plenty  of  green.  Sometimes  it  is  possible 
to  purchase  a  few  vases  for  the  school  at  small  cost.  Vases 
of  clear  glass  or  those  green  in  color  usually  harmonize 
best  with  the  flowers.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  one  may  use 
olive  or  pickle  bottles,  since  these  are  of  convenient  size 
and  are  often  artistic  in  shape.  All  labels  should  be  re- 
moved, and  the  bottles  should  be  clean.  The  vases  of 
flowers  should  be  placed  where  they  will  look  best  in  the 
room,  not  crowded  several  in  a  group  or  set  up  in  rows.  As 
soon  as  the  flowers  can  by  any  stretch  of  imagination  be 
called  faded,  they  should  be  thrown  away. 

"  The  shrine  of  beauty.**  The  suggestion  has  been 
made  by  some  teacher  of  art  that  in  every  schoolroom  there 
should  be  a  small  shelf,  in  a  comer  or  other  convenient 
place,  which  should  be  considered  a  "shrine  of  beauty." 
On  this  should  be  displayed  each  day  some  truly  beautiful 
article.  It  might  be  a  vase  of  flowers  or  a  vase  alone,  a 
shell,  a  leaf,  or  some  simple,  well-proportioned  manu- 
factured article.  It  was  maintained  that  such  a  shrine 
might  do  much  toward  developing  the  aesthetic  sense  of 
the  children. 

Blackboard  decorations.  Borders  made  with  colored 
crayons,  or  a  calendar  with  a  spray  of  flowers  or  leaves 
behind  it,  will  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  room.  The  deco- 
ration may  well  be  simple,  and  a  teacher  will  quickly  grow 
in  power  to  produce  a  good  one.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
avoid  crude  coloring ;  gray  or  violet  crayon  or  crayon  of 
the  necessary  complementary  color  will  be  found  useful  in 
softening  the  effects.  Children  are  not  critical,  but  glaring 
reds,  blues,  or  yellows  in  a  board  decoration  are  not  pleas- 
ing.   It  is  not  always  necessary  to  finish  a  drawing  at  one 

[21] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

time.  The  teacher  should  work  long  enough  to  make  it  as 
good  as  possible.    Artistic  children  may  sometimes  help. 

A  curtain  of  dull  green  or  some  other  soft  color  should 
have  a  place,  and  upon  it  should  be  put  the  children's 
good  work,  or  it  may  be  used  for  display  of  the  pictures 
before  referred  to.  Other  pictures  may  stand  on  the  chalk 
rail.  Some  teachers  stretch  a  length  of  black  mosquito 
netting  over  a  board.  The  pictures  may  be  fastened  to 
this,  the  netting  not  showing  at  all  against  the  black 
surface  of  the  board. 

Orderliness.  When  the  room  has  been  arranged  with 
attention  to  as  many  as  possible  of  the  above  suggestions, 
it  should  be  kept  in  good  order.  This  calls  for  constant 
care  from  both  teacher  and  pupils.  It  is  well  to  have  the 
children  formed  into  certain  committees  who  shall  care  for 
particular  things.  The  officers  may  be  changed  from  time 
to  time.  All  litter  should  be  disposed  of  at  once.  Chil- 
dren should  not  be  allowed  to  tear  waste  paper  into  bits  or 
crumple  it  into  a  ball.  It  should  be  folded  up  and  laid  on 
the  desk  till  collected  for  the  waste  basket.  Many  teachers 
encourage  the  use  of  a  small  cloth  bag  hung  beneath  each 
child's  desk.  Whatever  is  done  with  the  waste  paper,  the 
teacher  should  inspect  it  carefully  before  it  is  burned,  though 
this  inspection  should  not  be  made  noticeable.  Exami- 
nation of  this  kind  brings  to  light  much  needless  waste 
and  often  silly  or  improper  notes,  which  should  be  traced 
to  their  source  and  the  source  purified  as  far  as  possible. 
No  litter  should  be  allowed  in  the  aisles,  the  books  and 
other  material  should  be  arranged  neatly  in  the  desks,  and, 
above  all,  the  teacher's  desk  should  present  a  model.  It 
takes  only  a  minute  to  put  things  away  as  they  are  used, 

[22] 


THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING  AND  GROUNDS 

but  if  a  teacher's  desk  is  not  cleared  up  during  the  day,  the 
result  is  distressing  and  astonishing. 

Things  out  of  place  constitute  disorder,  and  hats,  coats, 
mittens,  and  rubbers  have  no  business  to  be  strewn  around 
the  room.  The  wraps  should  be  hung  upon  the  proper 
hooks  ;  the  rubbers  should  stand  beneath  them  side  by  side, 
heels  to  the  wall,  as  they  look  more  anchored  so.  Many 
teachers  make  use  of  snap  clothespins  having  the  child's 
name.  These  hold  the  two  rubbers  together.  Mittens  may 
be  put  under  a  stove  or  upon  a  steam  pipe  to  dry,  but  when 
dry  they  should  be  put  in  the  proper  place.  Lunch  boxes 
should  have  a  particular  place  and  be  kept  there.  Tin 
cans,  decayed  fruits,  withered  flowers,  and  such  things  do 
not  add  to  the  beauty  of  a  schoolroom. 

The  blackboards  should  be  cleaned  carefully  with  an 
eraser,  after  each  lesson  in  which  they  are  used.  At  recesses, 
at  noon,  and  at  night  they  should  be  wiped  with  a  piece  of 
soft  cloth.  The  teacher  should  include  an  abundance  of 
this  in  her  packing  box.  The  boards  should  be  washed 
with  clear  water  when  necessary,  though  too  much  wash- 
ing is  not  good  for  them.  Hard  rubbing  is  often  better, 
and  a  board  may  be  almost  perfectly  cleaned .  by  rubbing 
carefully  with  a  cloth  that  is  damp,  not  wet.  Erasers  should 
be  clean.  They  may  be  washed  by  dipping  them  in  water 
and  rubbing  them  together  vigorously,  afterwards  rinsing 
thoroughly.  Chalk  dust  should  not  be  left  scattered  on 
chalk  rails  for  any  length  of  time,  and  it  is  better  usually  to 
keep  the  chalk  in  a  box  than  on  the  rail.  A  clean  black- 
board is  an  ornament  to  any  schoolroom,  and  a  blackboard 
adorned  with  good  writing  is  still  better  to  look  upon,  but 
no  schoolroom  can  be  attractive  if  the  boards  are  covered 

[23] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

with  scrawls  of  writing  or  half-erased  examples.  A  teacher 
is  often  judged  solely  by  the  appearance  of  her  boards. 

Outbuildings.  The  outbuildings  should  be  looked  after 
carefully.  It  should  be  the  business  of  the  school  authori- 
ties to  see  that  they  are  in  a  condition  of  decency  at  the 
beginning  of  the  term,  and  that  of  the  teacher  to  see  that 
they  are  kept  so.  After  the  teacher  who  finds  them  in  bad 
condition  has  done  her  best  to  improve  them,  her  voice 
should  be  heard  early  and  often  till  they  are  put  right. 
Indecent  inscriptions  or  pictures  should  be  effaced  by  some 
means.  A  daily,  yes,  a  semidaily,  inspection  should  be 
made,  and  the  children  should  be  trained  as  rapidly  as 
possible  toward  a  state  of  disgust  for  anything  of  the  sort. 

The  school  yard.  The  school  yard  should  contain  a  pile 
of  sand  in  which  the  children  may  play  at  recess  and  where 
many  of  them  may  work  out  much  illustrative  work  in  con- 
nection with  their  lessons.  The  yard  should  be  raked  and 
cleared  up  generally.  An  effort  should  be  made  to  plant 
trees  if  they  are  lacking.  A  flower  garden  should  be  started, 
shrubs  introduced,  and  vines  planted  around  schoolhouse 
and  outbuildings.  A  few  years  of  care  may  change  a  bar- 
ren waste  into  a  place  of  beauty,  and  morning-glories, 
nasturtiums,  hop  vines,  and  Virginia  creeper  may  make 
quite  a  stride  toward  it  in  one  season. 

REFERENCES 

Brown  pictures.    G.  P.  Brown,  Beverly,  Mass. 

Kern.   Among  Country  Schools.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Meier.    School  and  Home  Gardens.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Perry  pictures.    The  Perry  Pictures  Company. 

Prang  colored  prints.    The  Prang  Educational  Company. 

Rhine  prints.    Atkinson,  Mentzer,  and  Company. 

[24] 


CHAPTER  IV 

APPARATUS  —  ITS  SOURCES,  CARE,  AND  USE 

Need  of  tools.  Though  scanty  material  often  develops  a 
saving  turn  of  mind,  though  a  skilled  workman  may  make 
his  own  tools  or  improve  upon  the  inferior  ones  furnished 
him,  yet  it  is  true  in  general  that  no  good  work  in  any  line 
can  be  done  if  material  and  tools  are  lacking.  In  school 
work,  books  and  other  tools  and  supplies  of  various  kinds 
are  needed.  They  should  be  accumulated  with  eagerness 
yet  with  caution  in  selection,  handled  with  utmost  care, 
and  made  use  of  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  productive  of 
best  results  in  shortest  time,  with  least  wear  and  tear. 

Economy  of  school  material.  The  children  should  be 
taught  economy  regarding  all  school  material.  Books,  pen- 
cils, paper,  pens,  chalk,  everything  of  the  sort,  should  be 
kept  in  mind  by  the  teacher,  and  all  waste  rigidly  sup- 
pressed. Children  often  feel  that  things  which  are  the 
property  of  the  town  never  have  to  be  paid  for  by  anybody, 
and  that  no  care  of  them  is  necessary.  A  little  talk  on  the 
principles  of  taxation  would  clear  up  this  idea.  Teachers 
themselves  are  often  so  careless  in  this  respect  as  to  be 
positively  dishonest,  feeling  no  compunction  in  using 
school  supplies  for  private  consumption  at  home  and  tak- 
ing permanent  possession  of  textbooks  whenever  they 
wish  —  a  proceeding  which  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than 
stealing.    Often  teachers  are  wasteful  of  supplies,  using 

[25] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

large  amounts  of  material  when  small  would  do  as  well. 
My  own  observation  is  that  nine  out  of  every  ten  young 
teachers,  if  they  were  to  have  a  class  cut  circles  an  inch  in 
diameter  out  of  four-inch  squares  of  any  material,  would 
have  each  child  place  the  circle  exactly  in  the  middle  of 
the  square,  and  never  give  a  thought  to  the  resulting  waste. 

Care  of  books.  A  teacher  should  be  as  careful  of  each 
book  as  if  it  were  her  own  and  absolutely  new.  I  have  seen 
teachers  fresh  from  the  sharpening  of  many  lead  pencils, 
with  fingers  black  from  contact  with  the  lead,  fall  calmly 
to  study  of  lessons  or  to  looking  up  some  disputed  point 
without  even  wiping  the  hands.  A  record  should  be  made 
of  all  books  given  to  children,  so  that  the  teacher  may  know 
whom  to  hold  responsible.  Early  in  the  term  the  books 
should  be  inspected  and  their  condition  learned.  All  marks 
should  be  erased.  Any  needed  mending  should  be  done. 
Much  use  may  be  made  of  adhesive  transparent  tape,  ad- 
hesive cloth,  and  loose-leaf  binders.  The  books  should  be 
covered  and  the  child's  name  put  upon  the  cover.  There 
should  be  frequent  inspection  during  the  term  and  a  thor- 
ough taking  account  of  stock  and  repairing  at  the  close. 
Each  child  should  feel  the  need  of  care  of  his  books  and 
that  the  teacher  will  know  what  happens  to  them.  Being 
made  to  bring  a  cent  has  given  many  a  little  child  a  large 
start  in  the  right  direction,  particularly  if  parents  were  wise 
enough  to  make  him  earn  the  cent. 

Children  should  be  taught  hozv  books  may  be  abused. 
They  should  never  be  bent  too  far  open,  never  marked 
unreasonably,  never  turned  down  or  chewed  at  corners, 
never  packed  too  closely  on  the  shelves.  Covers  too  tightly 
put  on  loosen  bindings ;    so  does  a  fall.    A  large  book 

[26] 


APPARATUS  —  ITS  SOURCES,  CARE,  AND  USE 

dropped  is  seldom  as  good  afterwards,  so  neither  teacher 
nor  children  should  carry  about  too  many  at  a  time  or 
pile  too  many  upon  a  desk. 

Fewer  books  than  usual  should  be  kept  in  desks.  This 
will  insure  better  care,  more  frequent  inspection,  better 
proportioned  study  time,  less  noise,  less  loss  of  time  in 
repacking.  Certain  books  may  well  be  kept  in  the  dests, 
but  many  of  the  others  may  be  kept  in  the  bookcase  or  in 
neat  piles  on  some  unused  desks  and  distributed  when 
needed.  Older  children  may  generally  have  most  of  their 
books  under  their  own  care.  Readers  are  often  too  tempting 
to  be  kept  in  desks,  and  any  child  who  makes  a  hobby  of  a 
particular  subject  is  not  to  be  trusted  with  the  entire  care 
of  the  book  relating  to  it.  If  children  are  allowed  to  take 
books  home,  they  should  be  cautioned  against  laying  them 
on  ground  or  doorsteps,  getting  them  wet,  or  leaving  them 
at  home  or  at  other  places  where  they  will  not  be  ready  for 
work  next  day. 

Distribution  of  apparatus.  Children  should  be  trained 
to  help  distribute  books  and  all  other  material.  It  should 
be  done  in  such  a  way  as  to  save  time  and  disorder.  Books 
should  usually  be  given  and  taken  by  rows  and  put  into 
the  case  in  proper  order,  one  child  doing  the  work  for  the 
row.  Sometimes  papers  and  light  material  may  be  handed 
in  bunches  to  the  children  at  the  front  desks,  who  may 
each  take  a  piece  and  pass  the  bunch  to  the  child  behind 
him.  Collection  may  be  made  in  the  same  way.  When 
many  things  are  to  be  given  for  one  lesson,  as,  for  example, 
in  a  drawing  class,  teacher  and  pupils  may  help  in  the 
work,  the  teacher  passing  the  material  slower  of  distribu- 
tion and  the  children  the  rest.    Often  everything  needed 

[27] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

for  a  painting  lesson  may  be  put  upon  a  large  board  and 
taken  by  the  teacher  down  the  aisles,  children  from  four 
desks  helping  themselves  to  it  at  the  same  time. 

It  is  not  well  for  a  teacher  herself  to  distribute  books  or 
papers  to  a  whole  class  one  by  one,  nor  yet  for  her  to  stand 
still  and  await  the  slower  distribution  of  a  single  child. 
Training  children  so  they  understand  just  what  to  do  and 
the  best  way  of  doing  it  saves  much  time  and  is  a  general 
help  in  discipline.  Time  taken  in  such  training  is  not 
wasted,  and  if  the  teacher  says,  "  All  hold  papers  in  the 
right  hand,"  they  should  be  held  in  that  way  if  it  takes 
the  whole  session  to  bring  it  about. 

Tools  should  be  ready.  Pencils  and  other  tools  should 
be  kept  in  readiness.  Pencil  sharpening  should  be  under 
the  supervision  of  the  teacher  and  seldom  done  in  school. 
I  remember  visiting  a  school  in  which  ten  minutes  of  school 
time  were  occupied  in  getting  pencils  ready,  the  children 
standing  around  the  wastebasket,  or  waste  heap,  as  it  might 
have  been  called  when  the  orgy  was  finished.  The  work 
might  just  as  well  have  been  done  before  school  —  the 
children  were  all  there. 

Pupils  should  understand  that  they  must  be  responsible 
for  being  ready.  If  a  child  fails  to  get  in  readiness,  he 
should  sit  idle  and  do  his  work  at  another  time.  This  will 
soon  quicken  the  memory  and  induce  a  feeling  of  respon- 
sibility. "  I  have  forgotten  my  book  "  or  "  I  have  the  wrong 
book  "  should  produce  a  gentle  expression  of  sympathy 
from  the  teacher,  but  usually  no  permission  to  make  good 
the  lack.  Rarely  then  will  such  things  be  forgotten,  and 
a  general  power  to  look  out  for  things  is  worth  more  than 
having  material  at  hand  for  a  single  lesson. 

[28] 


APPARATUS  —  ITS  SOURCES,  CARE,  AND  USE 

Acquisition  of  books.  Many  books  are  needed  for  use 
in  even  a  small  school.  The  teacher  will  have  to  furnish 
a  part  of  them,  as  has  been  said,  and  their  use  will  abun- 
dantly pay  her  for  her  sacrifice,  but  it  is  very  desirable  that 
a  permanent  school  library  be  built  up  as  soon  as  possible. 
The  children  may  be  asked  to  contribute  books  if  they  can  do 
so.  It  should  be  impressed  upon  them  that  what  is  wanted 
is  not  merely  entertaining  stories,  but  something  really 
worth  while  from  a  literary  or  other  educational  standpoint. 
The  teacher's  books  will  serve  as  a  sample.  The  superin- 
tendent may  be  asked  to  furnish  certain  books  for  the 
library.  Friends  of  teacher  or  school  will  often  contribute, 
and  a  really  valuable  reference  library  has  sometimes  been 
built  upon  a  foundation  started  by  retaining  one  or  two  of 
the  best  of  the  old  books  of  a  set,  when  an  exchange  of 
books  on  any  subject  was  made  because  the  whole  set  was 
no  longer  to  be  used  for  classes,  A  book  does  not  cease 
to  be  valuable  because  it  is  no  longer  the  best  for  class  use. 

Another  excellent  way  is  to  buy,  for  supplementary  read- 
ing, a  set  of  geography  or  history  or  other  similar  read- 
ers and  to  use  them  for  regular  readers  for  a  year  or  so 
and  then  get  another  set  of  supplementary  books,  adding 
the  first  set  to  the  reference  library.  Another  way  is  to 
ask  for  a  set  of  supplementary  readers  to  be  used  for  silent 
reading,  the  set  to  consist  of  one  of  as  many  kinds  as  there 
are  members  of  the  class.  These  may  be  read  by  all  in 
turn  and  then  added  to  the  library.  Such  purchase  of 
books  would  be  far  more  economical  than  to  buy  so  many 
of  one  kind,  as  is  often  done.  An  incentive  to  care  for  the 
books  would  be  furnished  if  the  children  were  interested 
in  enlarging  the  library. 

[29] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Books  the  most  valuable  tool.  Books  are  the  most  gen- 
eral and  valuable  of  the  tools  of  any  school.  They  should 
be  used  in  such  a  way  as  to  get  the  most  out  of  them.  The 
teacher  should  read  them  herself,  and  should  refer  the 
children  to  particular  things  in  them.  Pupils  should  be 
trained  into  a  habit  of  expecting  to  get  from  books  infor- 
mation regarding  any  subject,  and  any  contributions  to  reci- 
tations which  show  research  should  be  encouraged.  The 
teacher  should  open  lines  of  thought  and  then  speak  of 
certain  books  as  being  good  along  those  lines.  She  should 
tell  parts  of  things,  and  send  the  pupils  to  books  to  satisfy 
aroused  curiosity.  She  should  tell  what  she  is  reading,  and 
should  leave  books  around.  In  all  these  ways  the  pupils 
may  be  trained  toward  a  right  appreciation  of  a  book  as 
a  companion  and  as  a  tool. 

Homemade  books.  Closely  allied  to  the  regular  books 
we  find  the  made  book.  In  looking  over  magazines  for 
pictures,  one  often  finds  whole  articles  that  are  within  the 
comprehension  of  children.  These  may  be  taken  out  by 
unbinding  the  magazine,  and  then  they  may  be  fitted  with 
a  brown-paper  cover.  The  name  should  be  written  upon 
the  cover  and  the  whole  bound  together  by  a  cheap  fasten- 
ing. Small  ones  may  be  held  by  the  little  wire  fastenings 
that  attach  price  tags  to  articles  purchased  at  stores.  In 
time  valuable  articles  for  reference  may  be  accumulated. 
The  children  should  be  encouraged  to  bring  clippings, 
which  may  be  pasted  into  a  scrapbook  or  kept  in  enve- 
lopes suitably  labeled.  Scrapbooks  are  made  nowadays  of 
strong  manila  paper,  arranged  in  pockets  on  pages,  the 
whole  being  bound  into  a  book.  Such  a  book  may  become 
a  most  useful  tool. 

[30] 


APPARATUS  —  ITS  SOURCES,  CARE,  AND  USE 

Pictures  the  next  tool.  The  picture  is  the  next  most 
helpful  tool  for  school  use.  Reference  has  been  made  to 
it  in  the  chapter  on  the  teacher's  equipment.  The  most 
fruitful  source  of  supply  is  the  magazine.  Magazines  are  so 
cheap  and  plentiful  now,  that  there  is  rarely  a  house  where 
they  are  not  going  to  waste  in  larger  or  smaller  quantities. 
Let  a  teacher  once  make  known  her  desire  for  them,  and 
they  arrive  through  various  channels.  Of  course  they  can- 
not be  kept  in  bulk,  but  the  pictures  may  be  cut  out,  and 
so  the  value  of  a  year's  magazines  be  preserved  in  an 
inch  or  so  of  thickness.  A  novice  at  the  business  has  dif- 
ficulty in  selection.  Often  there  is  a  good  picture  on  each 
side  of  the  sheet,  but  life  is  made  up  of  sacrifices,  and  it 
is  better  to  make  a  choice  and  forget  the  loss.  If  the  pic- 
ture is  not  mounted,  one  may  use  both  sides.  It  is  wise  to 
mount  the  more  desirable  ones,  as  they  get  much  less  wear 
in  this  way.  The  mounts  should  not  be  too  heavy,  causing 
the  picture  to  take  up  too  much  space.  Various  things 
may  be  used  for  mounts.  One  teacher,  who  worked  in  a 
large  hotel  during  vacation,  begged  the  discarded  menus 
and  had  splendid  material  for  mounts  for  smaller  pictures. 
Some  teachers  who  boarded  in  the  house  of  a  printer 
found  scraps  of  waste  cardboard  to  be  had  for  the  asking. 
No  teacher  before  had  thought  of  using  such  things.  For 
mounting,  homemade  paste  may  be  used ;  or  jellitac,  a 
prepared  paste  that  comes  in  powder  form  to  be  mixed 
with  cold  water.  For  the  making  of  paste,  cornstarch  is 
best,  the  paste  being  made  like  any  starch,  but  cooked  a 
long  time  and  strained  through  cheesecloth  when  cool. 

Many  pictures  do  not  need  to  be  mounted.  They  may 
be  pinned  on  a  curtain  as  wanted.    It  is  well  to  adopt 

[31] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

some  sort  of  classification,  that  one's  resources  may  be 
easily  available.  The  pictures  may  be  catalogued  or  those 
on  kindred  subjects  may  be  kept  in  the  same  large  enve- 
lope or  folder.  Care  should  be  taken  to  select  the  pictures 
that  are  really  helpful  in  general  subjects  rather  than  those 
that  are  merely  beautiful,  though  the  beautiful  ones  have 
their  place,  of  course.  Many  pictures  may  be  picked  up 
that  are  remarkably  good  for  geography  and  history  and 
nature  work.  There  are  many  that  contain  a  story,  that 
are  valuable  in  connection  with  language  work.  The  ad- 
vertising pages  furnish  a  large  number  of  these,  and  some 
of  the  illustrations  are  pretty  good  as  works  of  art.  In 
these  advertisements  there  are  quantities  of  tiny  pictures 
that  may  be  used  for  busy-work  material,  which  will  be 
referred  to  later. 

Railway  folders  give  fine  pictures  for  geography.  The 
companies  send  out  these  folders  and  booklets  to  interest 
people  in  the  sections  shown,  and  there  is  no  better  way 
to  arouse  interest  than  through  the  schools,  so  it  is  per- 
fectly legitimate  to  secure  any  such  by  sending  a  stamp  or 
the  ten  cents  required.  Often  they  are  absolutely  free. 
Many  things  are  advertised  by  means  of  small  pictures, 
and  a  teacher  may  accumulate  them  if  she  keeps  the  idea 
in  mind.  A  young  teacher  once  remarked  to  an  older  one 
who  had  a  large  number  of  pictures  for  use  in  school, 
"  Those  that  came  my  way  did  n't  seem  good  enough, 
but  I  see  a  lot  of  them  in  your  collection,  doing  good 
work."  It  is  better  to  start  humbly  and  save  everything 
at  first,  winnowing  when  the  collection  has  got  large. 
Post  cards,  which  are  justly  having  such  popularity,  are 
excellent  and  have  the  advantage  of  being  stiff  enough 

[32] 


APPARATUS  — ITS  SOURCES,  CARE,  AND  USE 

to  stand  up,  while  not  occupying  much  room.  A  teacher 
should  do  her  best  to  get  a  good  post-card  collection  for 
herself  and  the  school,  but  should  frown  in  season  and 
out  of  season  upon  the  caricatures  that  are  crowding 
themselves  upon  the  market  and,  in  combination  with  the 
colored  Sunday  supplements,  doing  their  best  to  eradicate 
any  sense  of  good  art  or  high  ideals  of  life  that  schools 
may  be  able  to  inculcate.  Good  pictures  for  school  use  are 
published  by  such  companies  as  the  Brown  and  the  Perry, 
at  one  cent  each.  They  are  valuable,  but  a  good  collection 
of  pictures  may  be  obtained  without  directly  buying  many, 
if  it  is  gone  about  with  determination. 

The  school  collection.  Every  school  should  be  encour- 
aged to  have  a  permanent  collection  that  will  not  have  to 
move  with  the  teacher's  box.  If  the  teacher  does  her  best 
to  arouse  enthusiasm  in  the  children,  they  will  produce 
the  pictures  from  somewhere.  Frequently  they  will  find 
suitable  material  for  mounting  and  will  help  to  mount 
them,  thus  getting  in  addition  some  manual  training. 
The  pictures  may  be  kept  in  the  school  library  or  refer- 
ence cabinet,  and  the  children  may  see  that  they  are 
properly  arranged  and  help  to  get  out  such  as  are  needed 
in  connection  with  the  lessons. 

Use  of  pictures.  Having  secured  the  pictures,  the 
teacher  should  use  them.  She  should  look  over  every 
lesson  with  the  idea  of  finding  those  that  will  help. 
Often  a  bunch  of  pictures  may  be  passed  around  during 
the  study  period  as  an  aid  in  getting  the  lesson.  Usually 
it  will  be  enough  to  put  the  necessary  ones  on  the  curtain 
or  the  chalk  rail  and  suggest  that  the  children  look  at  them 
at  recess,  after  school,  or  during  any  spare  time  in  school. 

[33] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Sometimes  the  pictures  should  be  shown  to  the  class.  If 
the  lesson  is  on  lumbering,  for  example,  as  the  different 
steps  are  referred  to,  the  pictures  should  be  directly  shown. 
It  is  better  for  the  teacher  to  pass  up  the  aisle  and  have 
the  children  on  each  side  look,  than  to  pass  the  picture 
from  hand  to  hand,  which  takes  too  much  time  and  atten- 
tion. If  the  look  is  not  sufficient,  even  when  accompanied 
by  involuntary  holding,  further  opportunity  may  be  given 
as  mentioned  above.  The  name  should  be  below  the  pic- 
ture, not  pasted  to  the  back,  so  that  children  may  easily 
know  at  what  they  are  looking. 

If  a  picture  is  large  enough  to  be  seen  from  the  front 
of  the  room,  it  may  be  shown  to  the  whole  class  instead 
of  being  taken  through  the  aisles.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  it  is  the  children  who  need  to  see,  not  the 
teacher.  A  picture  should  be  held  so  that  neither  the 
teacher's  body,  head,  nor  arm  obstructs  the  view.  Chil- 
dren cannot  see  through  a  teacher's  finger,  even  though  it 
be  a  finger  eager  to  point  out  the  facts  of  the  picture,  and  a 
pencil  fluttering  over  the  surface  not  only  prevents  a  clear 
view  but  makes  children  nervously  annoyed.  Usually  a 
teacher  can  hold  a  picture  directly  in  front  of  her  and 
look  over  it  from  above,  but  she  must  be  careful  not  to 
hold  it  so  low  that  some  of  the  class  cannot  see. 

School  cabinet.  Mention  has  been  made  of  the  school 
cabinet  and  of  the  little,  common  things  helpful  for  pur- 
poses of  illustration.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  teacher's 
collection  will  be  large,  for  this  will  serve  as  an  incentive 
to  her  and  to  the  pupils  to  secure  a  permanent  collection 
for  the  school.  The  teacher  may  be  able  to  furnish  some 
things  for  a  starting  point.    Many  manufacturers  are  glad 

[34] 


APPARATUS  —  ITS  SOURCES,  CARE,  AND  USE 

to  assist  in  the  education  of  the  children,  and  by  judicious 
appeal  to  the  proper  authorities  one  may  often  obtain  mate- 
rial to  illustrate  each  step  in  an  important  manufacture. 
Often  the  children  will  have  something  to  contribute,  and 
valuable  material  may  be  acquired.  If  they  are  asked  to 
bring  samples  of  anything  they  have,  made  of  cotton  or 
wool  or  rubber,  and  if  such  contributions  are  mounted  on 
a  chart  or  put  all  together  into  a  box,  great  enthusiasm 
is  easily  aroused.  The  school  collection  may  also  include 
common  minerals,  articles  useful  for  the  science  work, 
and  many  things  good  for  drawings,  such  as  leaky  or 
cracked  cooking  utensils  of  good  shape  and  size,  outgrown 
toys,  and  other  like  articles.  The  contents  of  the  cabinet 
should  be  brought  out  when  in  any  way  they  illustrate 
the  lesson  in  hand.  It  makes  no  difference  if  last  week 
they  served  to  illustrate  another  lesson  for  the  same  or  a 
different  class. 

The  collection  may  become  a  nuisance  if  it  is  not 
properly  guarded  against  rats,  mice,  and  moths.  Tin 
boxes  and  small  or  large  bottles  solve  the  problem  nicely, 
though  it  is  well  to  use  moth  balls  freely  when  closing  up 
things  for  a  long  vacation.  Moth  balls  are  cheap  when 
bought  by  the  pound,  and  the  odor  soon  ceases  to  be 
objectionable. 

Loans.  The  children  will  ably  assist  in  making  a  per- 
manent collection  of  interesting  things  as  soon  as  they 
realize  that  it  is  not  rare  and  valuable  objects  that  are 
needed,  but  common,  everyday  ones.  It  is  possible  and 
desirable,  however,  to  have  this  greatly  supplemented  by 
means  of  loans.  If  articles  are  carefully  handled  and 
returned  uninjured,  many  things  may  be  borrowed  for  a 

[35] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

session  or  a  day  from  various  families  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. The  teacher  should  see  that  things  are  returned  in 
as  good  condition  as  when  received,  even  if  it  takes  time 
and  trouble  on  her  part.  Usually  people  are  glad  to  lend, 
but  unwilling  to  repeat  a  bad  experiment.  Everything 
worth  having  is  worth  making  an  effort  for,  and  the  occa- 
sion is  often  of  value  as  a  means  of  impressing  the  children 
with  certain  responsibilities. 

Effect  of  use  in  class.  Any  teacher  more  than  gets  her 
pay  for  outlay  of  time,  care,  and  money  in  connection 
with  the  use  of  outside  material,  in  the  progress  of  her 
work,  and  the  renewed  interest  of  the  children.  It  is  often 
complained  that  children,  particularly  rural  children,  will 
not  talk  in  school.  Work  of  this  sort  will  surely  produce 
freedom  of  expression,  unless  the  child  is  made  of  wood 
and  the  teacher  herself  something  of  a  dummy. 

The  blackboard.  The  blackboard  is  a  ready  tool  and 
should  be  used  in  connection  with  nearly  all  lessons.  Like 
any  other  valued  tool  it  should  be  kept  in  perfect  order, 
always  ready  for  use.  Boards  of  blackboard  cloth  are 
needed  often  and  have  the  advantage  that  the  teacher 
may  sit  to  put  on  such  work  as  is  done  out  of  school,  and 
that  they  may  be  put  up  and  taken  down  as  need  arises. 
In  using  the  board  for  drills,  the  class  should  be  massed 
in  small  compass  where  all  can  easily  see.  When  explana- 
tions are  in  process  a  pointer  should  be  employed.  It  is 
much  better  than  finger  or  pencil.  Care  should  be  taken 
that  the  one  using  the  board  should  stand  on  the  correct 
side  of  the  work  and  not  shut  off  the  view  of  anyone. 
This  direction  will  serve  as  well  for  map  use,  and  it  may 
be  well  to  state  that  individual  work,  carried  on  by  teacher 

[36] 


APPARATUS  —  ITS  SOURCES,  CARE,  AND  USE 

and  one  child  at  a  map  or  board  when  the  rest  of  the 
class  can  neither  see  nor  hear,  may  be  supposed  to  be  in- 
teresting and  profitable  to  the  whole  class,  but  rarely 
proves  to  be  either.  In  the  same  line  comes  work  in 
which  one  child  works  at  a  table  for  benefit  of  the  rest. 
He  should  stand  behind  the  table,  facing  the  class,  and 
care  should  be  taken  that  everyone  can  see,  instead  of 
only  the  child  doing  the  work. 

Maps  and  charts.  Maps  and  charts  are  much  needed 
to  supplement  board  work  and  books.  Excellent  maps 
may  be  made  upon  blackboard  cloth  or  upon  large  sheets 
of  brown  paper.  Such  maps  may  be  used  for  history  and 
geography  and  may  present  all  necessary  features  for 
the  work. 

Much  permanent  work,  such  as  drill  tables  or  reading 
material,  may  be  put  upon  sheets  of  brown  paper  with  a 
rubber  pen  or  with  a  pointed  eraser  dipped  in  ink.  The 
rubber  at  the  end  of  an  ordinary  cedar  pencil  is  excellent 
for  this  work.  These  sheets  of  paper  take  but  little  room 
and  save  a  great  deal  of  labor.  Charts  may  be  prepared 
also  by  use  of  the  stamping  machine,  or  sign  marker,  if 
one  can  succeed  in  obtaining  the  necessary  money  to  pur- 
chase it.  It  consists  of  a  set  of  small  letters,  capitals,  and 
figures,  each  on  a  little  stamp.  The  printing  is  done 
each  letter  separately,  is  large  enough  to  be  seen  across 
the  room,  and  may  be  made  upon  paper  or  cloth.  Large 
and  excellent  number  and  reading  charts  have  been  made 
by  its  use. 

Drill  cards.  Drill  cards  of  various  kinds  are  necessary. 
In  the  reading  work  one  needs  them  for  sight  words, 
phonetic  words,  and  phonograms;  that  is,  single  sounds. 

[37] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

For  number  they  are  good  for  multiplication  and  division 
drills  and  for  combinations  to  twenty,  as  well  as  for  many 
other  drills  which  will  occur  to  the  teacher.  They  may 
be  made  of  development  paper  in  varying  sizes,  but  in 
general  they  should  be  large  enough  so  that  the  fingers 
will  not  cover  the  work.  Directions  for  handling  will  be 
given  under  Reading. 

Other  apparatus.  The  teacher  will  find  her  work  made 
CMier  and  more  effective  by  the  use  of  some  or  all  of  the 
■■owing  material.  Most  of  it  may  be  obtained  from  the 
giWieral  school-supply  houses,  like  the  J.  L.  Hammett 
Company,  Boston  or  New  York ;  the  Milton  Bradley 
Company,  Boston  or  Springfield,  Massachusetts ;  Edward 
E.  Babb  and  Company,  Boston ;  A.  Flanagan  Company, 
Chicago.  Often  one  can  get  what  material  she  needs  from 
a  printing  house.  The  nearest  bookstore  may  contain  it, 
and  sometimes  it  has  to  be  made  by  the  teacher  herself. 

Oak  tag  or  manila  development  paper.  May  be  obtained  from 
any  of  the  above-named  school-supply  houses,  or  from  any  printing 
house. 

Various  cheap  papers^  white  or  manila,  for  arithmetic,  language, 
or  drawing.  Probably  furnished,  but  may  be  secured  from  same 
sources  as  above. 

Colored  papers,  frequently  called  studio.  Cost  about  two  cents 
for  a  sheet  22  by  28  inches.  Very  attractive  colors,  and  may  be 
made  to  serve  almost  any  purpose  for  which  colored  paper  is  wanted. 
Any  school-supply  house.  Its  place  may  be  filled  by  cartridge  paper, 
which  comes  in  rolls  for  wall  covering. 

Mounting  board.  Various  weights,  a  light  weight  being  most  use- 
ful for  general  purposes.    School-supply  houses  or  printing  office. 

Bradley's  kindergarien  crayons  (black).  School-supply  houses. 
A  great  help  in  the  writing  work  with  little  children.  About  six 
inches  long  and  nearly  an  inch  in  diameter.   A  dozen  in  a  box. 

[38] 


APPARATUS  —  ITS  SOURCES,  CARE,  AND  USE 

Eagle  pencils^  No.  77J.  School-supply  houses  or  bookstore.  In 
favor  for  children's  writing.    Of  large  diameter. 

Dixon's  cartoon  pencils.,  No.  4^0.  For  writing  on  big  sheets  of 
brown  paper,  as  for  a  blackboard.    School-supply  houses. 

Dixon's  colored  crayons.  Beautiful  in  color  and  fine  for  use, 
particularly  with  older  children.  Their  place  may  be  filled  by 
Crayola  or  any  of  the  cheaper  colors  now  on  the  market.  School- 
supply  houses. 

Dixon''s  colored  crayon  pencils.  Same  colors  as  the  crayons  and 
better  for  use  with  little  children.    School-supply  houses. 

Water-color  paints.  School-supply  houses.  The  Milton-Bradley 
Semi-moist  serve  well.  Their  place  may  be  taken  by  any  standard 
school  boxes  of  color.  The  pans  may  be  renewed  without  buying  new 
boxes.    The  cheap  paints  found  in  the  market  may  be  used  instead. 

Weaving  mats.  School-supply  houses.  Those  mats  are  best  which 
have  wide  strips.   For  learning,  one  may  make  mats  of  table  oilcloth. 

Colored  sticks  a}id pegs.    School-supply  houses. 

Clay.    School-supply  houses. 

Plasticine.  School-supply  houses.  Better  than  clay  for  work  with 
little  children.    Does  not  harden  and  may  be  used  many  times. 

Toy  money.  School-supply  houses.  May  be  made,  if  preferred, 
from  development  paper. 

Boston  guard  penholders.    School-supply  houses. 

Paper  rulers.  Schoolrsupply  houses.  May  be  made  from  devel- 
opment paper.    Great  saving  of  noise. 

Pitchpipe.    School-supply  houses. 

Seating  plan.    Edward  E.  Babb  and  Company,  Boston, 

Placards  for  store  or  arithmetic  classes.  Made  from  development 
paper.  May  use  ink,  paints,  or  pictures  from  fruit,  vegetable,  or 
furniture  catalogues. 

Sand  tray.  Made  of  zinc.  A  shallow  wooden  box  will  do.  It 
should  be  quite  large. 

Globe.  School-supply  houses.  A  cheap  one  serves  every  purpose. 
A  croquet  ball  may  do  considerable  service  as  a  small  globe. 

Solids  for  drawing  or  arithmetic  work.  Made  of  clay  or  devel- 
opment paper. 

Alcohol  lamp.  A  chafing-dish  lamp  or  any  cheap  one.  May  be 
made  from  a  tooth-powder  bottle  and  a  piece  of  wicking. 

[39] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Brushes.  Cheap  ones,  bought  at  the  five-and-ten-cent  stores,  for 
use  in  connection  with  industrial  work. 

Ticket  pins.  School-supply  houses  or  Dennison  Company,  Bos- 
ton or  New  York.  For  putting  up  commendable  drawings  or  other 
papers. 

Picture  wire.  Stretched  along  the  top  of  a  blackboard,  it  serves 
better  than  cord  for  suspending  papers. 

Guvimed  cloth  patches.  Small  circles  of  gummed  cloth,  having  a 
hole  in  the  center.  Excellent  stays  for  the  tops  of  paper  charts. 
The  charts  may  then  be  hung  from  two  or  three  nails.  Many  may 
be  kept  in  small  space  in  this  way,  to  be  used  as  needed.  Dennison's 
Number  2  are  satisfactory. 

Mending  material.  Adhesive  transparent  tape,  gummed  cloth 
tape,  loose-leaf  binders,  T  binders.  Dennison  Company  or  school- 
supply  houses. 

Book  covers.    Holden  Company,  Springfield,  Mass. 

Jellitac.  A  prepared  paste  in  powder  form.  Arthur  S.  Hoyt, 
90-92  West  Broadway,  New  York.  Probably  to  be  obtained  from 
any  dealer  in  books  and  school  materials. 

Day''s  White  Paste.  Diamond  Paste  Company,  Albany,  N.Y., 
or  Edward  E.  Babb  and  Company,  Boston. 

Raffia.  McHutchison  &  Company,  17  Murray  Street,  New  York. 
Does  not  sell  in  small  quantities,  but  by  clubbing  or  by  selling  to 
the  children,  twenty-five  pounds  may  be  easily  disposed  of. 

Reeds.    F.  B.  Alexander,  Watertown  Street,  West  Newton,  Mass. 

Easy  Dye.   School-supply  houses. 

Bartlett  looms.    J.  L.  Hammett  Company,  Boston  or  New  York. 

ABC  Weaving  Looms.  The  ABC  Weaving  Loom  Company, 
Toledo,  Ohio. 

Pulton  Sign  Marker.  Any  school-supply  house  or  retail  dealer 
in  school  supplies. 

Rubber  marking  pen.  Any  dealer  in  school  material.  One  may 
use  instead  a  pointed  eraser  or  the  eraser  in  the  end  of  an  ordinary 
cedar  pencil.    Dip  in  common  ink  or  in  india  ink. 

Automatic  shading  pen.  Edward  E.  Babb  and  Company,  Boston. 
For  inking  letters  or  figures. 

The  ^^Perfect  Scrapbook."  Combination  Envelope  Company, 
Holyoke,  Mass. 

[40] 


APPARATUS  —  ITS  SOURCES,  CARE,  AND  USE 

Leathers.   W.  A.  Hall,  iig  Beach  Street,  Boston. 

Cheap  reproductions  of  good  pictures.  G.  P.  Brown  &  Company, 
Beverly,  Mass.,  or  The  Perry  Pictures  Company,  Boston. 

Hectograph  No.  i.  Cooper's  gelatin,  3  ounces;  glycerin,  i8|- 
fluid  ounces.  Soak  gelatin  in  water  overnight ;  in  morning  pour  oft 
excess  of  water ;  put  gelatin  in  a  double  boiler ;  add  glycerin ;  cook 
(uncovered)  about  five  hours. 

Hectograph  No.  2.  Glycerin,  20  ounces ;  white  glue,  5  ounces ; 
water,  12  ounces.  Soak  the  glue  in  the  water  overnight;  bring  to 
a  boil ;  add  glycerin ;  boil  six  or  eight  minutes. 

Hectograph  No.  3.  Glycerin,  i  pint ;  white  glue,  4  ounces.  Dis- 
solve the  glue  in  hot  water,  using  as  small  a  quantity  as  possible ;  heat 
the  glycerin  in  hot  water ;  stir  the  glycerin  slowly  into  the  glue ;  do 
not  cook  further. 

Hectograph  No.  4.  Glycerin,  1 8  fluid  ounces ;  gelatin,  2  ounces ; 
glue,  \  ounce.  Soak  gelatin  in  water  until  soft  —  one  half  hour,  per- 
haps ;  drain  off  all  water  possible ;  place  in  a  double  boiler  until  dis- 
solved ;  meanwhile  place  glue  on  back  of  stove  in  a  small  dish  in  a 
little  water ;  when  glue  and  gelatin  are  dissolved,  pour  glycerin  and 
glue  into  the  dissolved  gelatin  and  leave  until  thoroughly  mixed ;  let 
it  boil  about  five  minutes. 

All  these  hectographs  are  known  to  be  good.  Several  are  given 
to  meet  varying  conditions  and  tastes.  For  each  is  needed  a  pan, 
about  II  X  g  X  |-  inches,  or  12x9x1  if  that  seems  more  con- 
venient. Such  a  pan  may  be  obtained  at  any  tinsmith's,  and  it  is 
better  to  have  a  cover  for  it  and  to  have  the  edges  of  both  pan  and 
cover  hemmed. 

When  the  hectograph  is  cooked  sufficiently  it  should  be  poured 
into  the  pan  slowly  to  avoid  bubbles.  When  cool  it  is  ready  for 
use. 

Hectograph  ink  may  be  purchased  of  any  news  dealer.  It  comes 
in  black,  green,  or  violet.  This  ink  is  likely  to  prove  more  satisfac- 
tory, but  it  is  possible  to  make  the  ink  for  one's  self,  if  desired.  For 
it  use  violet  or  green  aniline  (two  parts),  acetic  acid  (two  parts),  water 
(six  parts).  Hectograph  ink  is  really  dye,  so  one  should  be  careful  in 
the  use  of  it.  Wherever  a  tiny  particle  of  the  dried  ink  finds  lodg- 
ment, a  spot  of  color  will  appear  if  water  comes  in  contact  with  it. 

[41] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

A  Dixon's  Etemo  pencil  may  be  used  instead  of  the  pen  and  ink, 
by  wetting  it  as  one  writes.  The  ink  is  rather  better,  as  it  is  difficult 
to  keep  the  pencil  evenly  moistened. 

To  hectograph  one  should  write  the  copy  on  well-sized  paper  with 
a  clean  steel  pen.  The  hectograph  should  then  be  moistened  slightly, 
and  the  copy  placed  face  downward  upon  it  for  perhaps  a  minute, 
till  a  good  impression  is  left.  Then  the  sheets  of  paper  should  be 
applied,  rubbed  down  firmly,  and  removed  as  rapidly  as  possible. 
When  as  many  as  are  required  have  been  taken,  the  hectograph 
should  be  washed  with  a  sponge  or  soft  cloth  and  warm  water. 
The  hotter  the  water  the  more  quickly  the  cleaning  is  done,  but  the 
more  rapidly  the  hectograph  wears  away.  It  should  be  dried  wholly, 
either  by  wiping  or  draining,  before  putting  on  the  cover,  or  it  will 
mold. 

If  in  the  hectographing  the  copy  blurs,  the  hectograph  was  too 
moist;  if  the  papers  stick,  the  sponge  may  be  used  to  moisten  it 
more  without  fear  of  removing  the  impression,  provided  the  water 
be  cold;  it  may  be  moistened  if  the  pajiers  fur  and  so  cover  the 
copy  with  a  little  coating  which  obscures.  If  the  hectograph  seems 
too  soft,  it  should  be  boiled  some  more;  if  it  seems  too  dry  and 
cracks,  it  may  be  heated  and  a  little  more  water  or  glycerin  added ; 
if  it  gets  worn  and  ragged  in  the  using,  it  may  be  put  into  the  oven 
for  a  moment  or  two,  when  it  will  again  cool  evenly. 

A  hectograph  is  one  of  the  teacher's  greatest  helps.  Probably  no 
one  device  is  of  so  great  value.  She  should  never  be  without  one 
and  should  use  it  very  frequently. 

Books  for  teachers'  use  or  for  children's  library.  There 
are  many  good  books  to  be  obtained  for  the  use  of  the 
teacher  or  to  stock  the  children's  Hbrary.  Lists  for  the 
former  purpose  are  placed  at  the  end  of  each  chapter. 
The  books  included  in  these  lists  have  been  chosen  be- 
cause of  their  usefulness  to  teachers  rather  than  because 
of  their  fitness  to  be  employed  as  textbooks  in  the  hands 
of  the  children,  though  many  of  them  would  of  course 
serve  well  in  the  latter  capacity. 

[42] 


APPARATUS  —  ITS  SOURCES,  CARE,  AND  USE 

The  list  of  books  useful  for  the  pupils'  library  is  too 
long  to  be  included  here.  A  teacher  may  acquire  much 
information  regarding  such  books  by  study  of  publishers' 
catalogues.  The  teacher  of  the  smallest  school,  writing 
directly  to  any  publishing  house  for  books,  catalogues,  or 
any  desired  information,  will  receive  prompt  and  courteous 
response  in  all  cases.  There  is  usually  no  need  to  give 
streets  and  numbers,  since  most  of  the  publishing  houses 
are  well  known.  It  is  possible  also  for  a  teacher  to  make 
arrangements  with  the  nearest  bookseller,  by  which  he  will 
secure  all  needed  books  and  allow  a  proper  discount,  as  is 
done  by  the  publishing  firms. 


[43] 


CHAPTER  V 

STARTING  IN 

Early  arrival  desirable.  The  teacher  should  go  early 
to  her  school.  She  who  is  landed  at  her  schoolhouse  a 
half  hour  before  time  to  begin  starts  at  a  disadvantage, 
particularly  if  she  has  no  idea  of  the  conditions  in  the 
locality  or  of  where  she  is  to  board.  If  she  is  near  enough 
so  that  she  can  conveniently  do  so,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  go 
to  the  school  a  few  days  before  and  see  what  things  need 
to  be  done  in  preparation  for  beginning.  If  this  is  not 
possible,  she  should  go  at  least  a  day  before ;  that  is,  she 
ought  to  be  there  by  Saturday  noon  at  the  latest,  if  school 
is  to  begin  Monday.  This  gives  her  an  opportunity  to 
examine  the  register  if  the  last  teacher  has  left  one,  as 
she  ought.  She  can  get  some  idea  of  names  and  classes, 
find  out  what  books  there  are,  and  discover  the  general 
resources  of  the  school,  besides  doing  what  cleaning  may 
be  necessary  and  making  special  preparation  for  the  work 
of  the  first  day. 

The  first  day.  When  the  day  comes  she  should  be  at 
the  building  an  hour  before  the  time  for  the  session  to 
open,  and  lest  the  heart  of  the  inexperienced  teacher 
should  fail  her,  she  should  keep  busy  during  that  hour. 
She  should  continue  the  practice  of  being  at  school  early, 
for  many  reasons.  Being  on  hand  this  first  day,  she  can 
greet  each  new  arrival  and  get  quite  a  good  account  of 

[44] 


STARTING  IN 


stock  before  the  actual  work  begins.  Two  or  three  min- 
utes before  the  regular  hour  she  should  ring  her  bell  and 
assemble  her  school.  It  will  be  an  unnecessary  formality 
the  first  day,  but  of  considerable  importance  later.  The 
extra  minute  or  two  is  valuable  for  getting  settled  so  as 
to  be  really  ready  for  work  when  the  hour  strikes,  though 
attendance  should  be  reckoned  from  the  regular  time. 
This  may  be  called 
the  warning  bell,  and 
prompt  response  should 
be  expected  to  its  sum- 
mons. It  is  the  only 
time  in  the  school  day 
when  a  bell  is  really 
needed,  simple  signals 
serving  better  at  other 
times  as  being  far  less 
disturbing  to  the  school . 
Seating  and  taking 


I 1 1 , 1 , 

i| ill ill 1]         I         I 

U id LjJ L) 1 L 

I  ■  '  ■  I 

I  !  I  < 

I  >  ! 

I  >  I 

III 

I I L 

i       '  i       1 

I         I         !         I         ! 
I         III 

I I I 

!  I  I  '  I  I 

I  I  I  I  I  I 

I  I  I  I  I  I 

I  I  I  <  I 

III 

I 1 \ \ \ [ 

I         I          i         I         !         I 

I         !         I        !        ! 
Ill 
I         I         I         I         I         I 

!   I   !    M    i 

L I I 1 J. 


names.  The  children 
may  be  allowed  to  sit 
where  they  please  at 
first,  but  should  be  made  to  understand  that  this  is  only 
temporary  and  that  the  seating  will  be  attended  to  later. 
Then  the  teacher  may  arrange  it  at  leisure,  with  due 
regard  to  height  of  desks  and  chairs,  defective  sight  or 
healing,  and  disturbing  elements  of  various  kinds.  ^ 

The  names  and  ages  of  the  pupils  may  be^  taken  im- 
mediately. Many  teachers  use  a  seating  plan  like  the  ac- 
companying illustration.  It  is  made  of  pasteboard  with 
stiff  paper  or  vellum  stitched  to  form  little  pockets,  as  many 

[45] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

as  there  are  desks.  Into  each  is  slipped  a  card  with  the 
name  of  the  occupant  of  the  desk.  This  plan  is  of  value 
for  enabling  a  strange  teacher  to  locate  the  name  of  a  par- 
ticular child  at  a  glance,  and  the  cards  are  easily  changed 
to  accommodate  reseating.  Many  teachers  believe  that  the 
taking  of  names  should  be  postponed  till  later,  but  it  is 
a  great  advantage  to  be  able  to  call  a  child  by  name.  If 
slips  containing  the  number  of  row  and  desk  be  ready  to 
be  passed,  and  the  older  children  write  their  names  and 
that  of  any  small  child  seated  near,  the  process  will  take 
but  a  short  time.  The  slips  may  be  put  immediately  into 
th£  desk  plan,  and  the  teacher  is  much  less  hampered. 

When  all  are  in  readiness  on  the  first  day  the  teacher 
may  ask  if  there  are  others  to  come,  express  her  pleasure 
that  so  many  are  present,  and  by  some  quiet  little  remark 
insert  the  opening  wedge  for  good  attendance  during  the 
term.  / 

'  Need  of  watchfulness.  During  this  day  the  teacher 
should  watch  closely  and  reserve  her  judgment.  She  may 
be  able  to  locate  her  leaders  and  to  formulate  plans  for 
her  campaign.  Sometimes  the  children  who  seem  bright- 
est and  most  attractive  do  not  wear  well.  The  child  who 
appears  stupid  may  be  only  shy,  the  slow  one  may  be  a 
pretty  persistent  worker ;  so  snapshot  decisions  regarding 
the  school  are  unwise. 

Opening  exercises  for  first  day.  The  program  for  the 
day  has  been  planned.  Of  course  the  opening  exercises 
come  first.  These,  for  this  time,  should  be  very  simple, 
consisting  perhaps  of  the  reading  or  repetition  of  the 
twenty-third  psalm,  repetition  of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and 
the  singing  of  some  hymn  which  would  be  familiar  to 

[46] 


STARTING  IN 

all  —  "America"  is  usually  a  safe  one.  If  the  teacher  is 
not  a  singer  the  h)min  may  be  omitted  for  a  few  days,  and 
in  places  where  state  laws  or  school-board  action  forbid 
Scripture  reading,  the  teacher  will,  of  course,  omit  that. 

This  is  all  that  is  really  necessary  for  the  exercises  of 
the  first  day,  though  if  the  teacher  chooses,  she  may  say 
a  word  or  two  regarding  the  beauty  of  the  psalm  or  speak 
of  good  schools  helping  to  make  a  good  country,  after  the 
singing  of  "America."  She  may  write  some  quotation 
containing  a  helpful  thought  on  the  board  and  have  the 
children  read  it  in  concert,  saying  she  would  like  to  have 
them  learn  it  during  the  day.  Care  should  be  used  in  select- 
ing it.  It  should  contain  a  virile  thought  that  will  stimulate 
boys  as  well  as  girls  to  effort.  If  the  teacher  wishes  to  say 
a  few  words  to  the  school  as  to  their  common  aims  regard- 
ing the  school  work,  it  is  all  right  for  her  to  do  so,  but 
such  a  talk  should  be  very  short  and  may  well  be  omitted. 

Program  for  first  day.  Following  the  opening  exercises 
comes  the  active  work  of  the  school.  Certain  books  have 
to  be  given  out.  It  will  be  well  to  have  them  all  collected 
at  the  end  of  the  day,  till  the  teacher  can  distribute  them 
permanently  and  make  a  record.  This  she  may  plan  at 
night,  after  the  children  are  gone. 

The  work  of  the  first  day  may  include  arithmetic,  read- 
ing, spelling,  geography,  and  perhaps  language.  The 
older  pupils  may  perform  long  examples  in  the  four  proc- 
esses, or  they  may  write  the  multiplication  tables  or  be 
given  any  drill  work  that  can  be  done  without  much  super- 
vision and  that  will  give  the  teacher  an  idea  of  their 
powers.  They  may  be  cautioned  about  accuracy  and  may 
be  furnished  with  still  further  work  by  being  required  to 

[47] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

prove  the  examples.  In  place  of  this,  if  wished,  a  reading 
lesson  may  be  assigned  to  be  studied  or  long  lists  of 
spelling  words  may  be  given.  Usually,  indefinite  work 
like  reading  and  spelling  is  much  less  likely  to  keep  the 
children  occupied  than  that  in  which  the  work  is  more 
specific.  If  spelling  is  assigned  for  the  first  day,  it  is  well 
to  have  it  studied  by  having  each  word  that  the  child  does 
not  know  he  can  spell  written  a  certain  number  of  times, 
though  this  will  not  serve  for  later  spelling  study ;  or 
the  older  pupils  may  be  given  paper  and  pencils  to  write 
an  account  of  their  vacation  or  their  ideas  upon  some 
other  definite  subject.  Something  should  be  chosen  about 
which  the  teacher  knows  that  the  child  has  knowledge, 
that  he  may  not  feel  unable  or  unwilling  to  comply.  The 
object  of  this  first  work  is  to  keep  the  older  children  doing 
something  till  the  teacher  has  a  chance  to  get  things  going. 
Having  assigned  work  to  the  older  ones,  the  little  ones 
may  be  called  for  reading.  Into  this  lesson  should  go  all 
the  variety  and  life  possible.  The  teacher  may  impress  the 
older  ones  by  her  manner  of  conducting  this  first  class. 
After  the  reading,  the  little  children  may  be  shown  how 
to  do  some  form  of  busy  work.  They  may  work  at  this  till 
tired,  after  which  they  may  be  turned  out  of  doors  for  a 
while,  if  the  weather  permits,  otherwise  they  may  be  given 
something  to  play  with  quietly.  After  the  first  class  is 
settled  the  next  smallest  or  else  the  most  troublesome  grade 
may  be  called.  Care  should  be  taken  that  plenty  of  work  is 
given  and  that  the  children  do  not  spend  too  long  a  time 
at  the  same  thing.  The  object,  the  first  day,  is  to  keep 
them  occupied,  and  it  is  not  specially  essential  that  any 
particular  kind  of  work  be  done. 

[48] 


STARTING  IN 

The  regular  program.  Beginning  with  the  second  day 
the  regular  program  should  be  started  upon,  though  cer- 
tain less  important  lessons  may  be  omitted  on  that  day,  as 
details  in  regard  to  passing  and  collecting  work  and  the 
regular  conduct  of  the  classes  will  take  a  longer  time  than 
the  teacher  will  need  for  them  later.  It  is  not  necessary 
that  the  time  occupied  by  the  classes  on  the  second  day 
should  be  exactly  that  of  the  program. 

Place  of  hard  and  easy  subjects.  In  making  the  regular 
program,  the  hardest  studies  should  be  planned  for  the 
freshest  periods.  Among  the  hardest  studies  may  be 
counted  arithmetic,  technical  grammar,  and  reading  up  to 
the  point  where  the  children  have  grasped  the  mechanical 
part  of  it  —  that  is,  for  at  least  two  grades.  The  arithmetic 
work  of  the  first  grade,  if  arithmetic  is  taken  in  that  year, 
is  not  difficult  or  exhausting.  The  easy  studies  should  be 
placed  just  before  recess  or  closing.  In  general,  the  hours 
from  eleven  to  twelve  and  from  one  to  two  are  hardest, 
though  if  a  longer  nooning  is  taken,  the  first  hour  of  the 
afternoon  session  would  be  better.  With  the  single  hour 
at  noon,  the  best  time  is  from  nine  to  eleven  and  from 
two  to  three-thirty  or  four. 

It  is  well  to  put  the  arithmetic  early  and  the  grammar 
and  first-,  second-,  and  third-grade  reading  in  good  hours. 
The  order  of  beginning  the  day  with  the  highest  reading 
class  and  working  down  is  bad.  The  higher  reading  classes 
call  for  interest  and  attention,  but  do  not  furnish  work  tax- 
ing to  the  brain.  History,  some  of  the  language  work, 
drawing,  nature  study,  may  go  into  the  less  favorable  hours. 
Writing  should  not  come  when  the  children  have  just 
come  in  from  active  play,  so  it  is  better  not  to  put  it  at 

[49] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

the  beginning  of  the  sessions,  nor  immediately  after  recess. 
Music  may  be  given  at  the  beginning  of  a  session  to  calm 
down  with  or  when  specially  difficult  work  is  being  done, 
but  there  should  not  regularly  be  a  long  lesson  in  music 
in  the  early  morning,  when  children  are  ready  for  hardest 
brain  work.  Music  may  well  be  placed  between  exhausting 
studies,  as  it  serves  as  a  rest  and  relaxation  if  properly 
managed.  Though  the  formal  gymnastic  work  calls  for 
active  attention  and  is  wearying,  the  physical  exercises 
which  are  needed  in  the  ordinary  school  are  restful  and 
may  be  put  in  between  classes  as  often  as  possible. 
Physical  exercises  should  not  usually  be  given  just  before 
or  after  recess,  as  teachers  often  unthinkingly  arrange 
for  them. 

The  program  should  never  be  planned  so  that  a  child  will 
have  in  succession  several  exercises  calling  for  written  work. 
In  mixed  or  primary  schools  space  should  be  allowed  on  the 
program  for  a  story.  Usually,  the  last  thing  before  dis- 
missal is  a  good  time  for  this.  With  single  higher  grades 
the  story  may  be  taken  with  the  language.  It  is  advisable 
to  assign  a  reasonably  long  period  for  opening  exercises, 
as  into  this  time  may  go  many  of  the  extras  that  one 
wants  and  yet  sees  scanty  time  for.  If  possible,  it  is  well 
to  have  a  period  in  the  school  program  marked  "Optional." 
This  should  be  used  habitually  for  the  extra  most  needed 
on  that  particular  day.  It  should  not  be  dribbled  away  by 
allowing  each  lesson  to  run  over  a  little,  nor  should  it  be 
employed  always  for  the  teacher's  hobby. 

Arrangements  for  making  most  of  time.  Some  grading 
may  have  to  be  done  by  the  teacher  in  a  rural  school.  It 
should  be  planned  so  as  to  secure  to  the  individual  the 

[50] 


STARTING  IN 

best  possible  results,  without  injury  to  the  school  as  a 
whole.  Much  time  may  be  saved  by  judicious  combination. 
After  the  third  year  in  school  any  two  consecutive  grades 
may  read  together,  alternating  the  reading  material .  For  ex- 
ample, the  fourth  and  fifth  may  read  the  books  furnished 
for  fourth-grade  reading  one  year  and  those  for  the  fifth 
the  next.  There  is  not  much  difference  in  the  difficulty 
of  the  material.  Certain  drill  work  in  arithmetic  may  be 
given  to  quite  a  part  of  the  school  instead  of  to  classes 
singly.  Some  composition  work  may  be  handled  with 
more  than  one  class.  Classes  may  be  given  spelling  in 
combination,  or  several  spelling  lessons  may  go  on  at  one 
time.  Combinations  may  often  be  profitably  made  in  a 
rural  school  or  in  one  of  several  grades  by  including  all  the 
children  of  the  school  in  two  divisions — the  oldest  in  one, 
the  youngest  in  another ;  or,  if  the  scholars  vary  much  in 
age,  a  third  division  may  be  made  to  include  the  pupils  of 
middle  grade.  This  subdivision  is  good  for  music,  drawing, 
nature  work,  or  similar  subjects. 

Many  times  alternation  may  be  made  useful,  history  be- 
ing alternated  with  geography,  drawing  with  writing,  music 
with  nature  work  ;  or  a  regular  period  may  be  arranged  for 
writing,  drawing,  music,  and  the  like,  and  the  divisiojis 
alternated  as  above.  Certain  subjects  may  take  the  place 
of  others  once  a  week.  It  should  be  remembered  that  call- 
ing two  classes  together  is  not  a  combination  unless  they  do, 
at  least  in  part,  the  same  work.  Such  calling  is  not  good 
planning,  as  one  class  sits  idle  when  it  might  be  working. 

Recitation  periods  should  be  short.  The  program  periods 
should  not  be  too  long.  If  everything  is  ready,  much  can 
be  accomplished  in  even  ten  minutes.  The  teacher  should 

[51] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

plan  her  work  as  a  good  housekeeper  plans  hers  —  or  a 
dressmaker  or  a  carpenter  —  and  so  make  every  minute 
count.  If  preparation  has  been  made  beforehand,  a  short 
recitation  period  will  cover  what  is  necessary.  Children 
tire  easily,  and  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  of  vigorous  work, 
with  teacher  and  pupils  all  alert,  will  accomplish  more 
than  thirty  under  less  favorable  conditions. 

Written  program.  It  is  well  to  have  a  written  program 
for  each  day.  This  program  should  include  study  periods 
for  the  various  classes,  as  well  as  recitation  periods.  The 
teacher  may  have  this  program  on  a  board  or  chart,  or  she 
may  have  only  the  recitation  program  there  and  tell  the 
children  what  to  study,  seeing  afterwards  that  they  do  as 
told.  They  should  not  be  allowed  to  study  as  the  spirit 
moves,  for  they  will  misproportion  their  time,  losing  run 
of  it  or  studying  their  favorite  subjects.  Effort  should  be 
made,  however,  to  train  children  to  keep  account  of  their 
own  time  and  plan  their  own  work. 

Changing  program.  Having  a  program,  it  is  well  to 
follow  it,  as  a  rule.  Unforeseen  changes  confuse  the  chil- 
dren. Lengthening  recitation  periods  lengthens  some 
study  periods  and  shortens  others,  and  either  brings  the 
children  unprepared  to  class  or  allows  a  lot  of  time  for 
waste.  Omitting  subjects  is  common  and  confusing.  Grad- 
ually a  teacher  gets  in  the  way  of  omitting,  the  subjects 
she  cares  least  for,  or  of  shortening  their  time  and  pro- 
longing her  hobbies,  coming  out  at  night  a  subject  or  so 
short.  The  teacher  needs  to  be  very  exacting  with  herself 
in  observance  of  her  program  time,  fully  as  much  on  her 
own  account  as  on  that  of  the  children,  though  occasionally 
a  program  may  be  broken.    There  are  times  when  special 

[52] 


STARTING  IN 

guests  have  taken  great  pains  to  visit  a  school  and  are  eager 
to  see  its  workings.  It  seems  a  pity  for  them  to  be  enter- 
tained by  written  lessons  or  study  periods  if  a  different 
arrangement  can  be  made  without  too  great  loss. 

Sample  programs.  As  a  help  in  program  making,  a  few 
are  included  here.  They  are  not  intended  to  be  at  all  per- 
fect or  to  present  the  only  proper  order  of  arranging  work. 
They  do,  however,  keep  in  mind  certain  well-established 
principles  that  govern  school  work. 

Program  for  a  School  of  Two  Grades 

9.00-  9.1 5  —  Opening  Exercises. 

9.15-  9.35  —  VI  Arithmetic. 

9.35-  9.55  —  VII  Arithmetic. 

9.55-10. 1 5  —  VI  Language. 
1 0.1 5-1 0.30  —  Writing. 
10.30-10.45  —  Recess. 
10.45-10.50  —  VI  Word  Study. 
10.50-10.55  —  VII  Word  Study. 
10. 55-11. 15  —  VII  Geography  or  History. 
1 1 . 1 5-1 1 .20  —  Physical  Exercises. 
1 1 .20-1 1.35  —  Science.    Alternating,  or  a  combination. 
II. 35-11. 55  —  Drawing.    Alternating,  or  a  combination. 

1.30-  1.50  —  Music. 

1.50-  2.00  —  Spelling,  Phonetics,  Voice  Drills. 

2.00-  2.20  —  VII  Language. 

2.20-  2.40  —  VI  Geography  or  History. 

2.40-  2.50  —  Recess. 

2.50-  3.10  —  VII  Reading. 

3.10-  3.30  —  VI  Reading. 

3.30-  3.40  —  Optional. 

The  grades  have  been  termed  the  sixth  and  seventh  for 
convenience.  Any  other  numbers  would  have  served  as 
well.    If  a  teacher  prefers  a  longer  period  for  some  of  the 

[S3] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

subjects,  it  may  be  taken,  and  the  work  in  drawing  and 
nature  study  put  into  some  one  or  two  sessions  and  made 
longer.  Some  teachers  prefer  shorter  recitations  each  day, 
while  others  like  better  to  cut  down  the  number  and  use 
a  longer  time  for  each.  No  more  than  thirty  minutes 
should  be  allowed  for  any  class,  and  with  grades  below  the 
eighth  and  ninth  at  any  rate,  the  periods  should  not  usu- 
ally exceed  twenty  minutes  in  duration. 

Program  for  a  School  of  Four  Grades 

9.00-  9.15  —  Opening  Exercises. 
9.15-  9.30  —  I  Reading. 
9.30-  9.40  —  II  Word  Study  and  Phonetics. 
9.40-  9.55  —  III  Arithmetic. 
9.55-10.00  —  Physical  Exercises. 
1 0.00- 1 0.1 5  —  IV  Arithmetic. 

10. 1 5-10.25  —  I  and  II  Number.    Such  regular  number  work  as 
is  suited  to  first  grade  may  be  taken  by  them 
in  combination  with  second. 
1 0.25-10.40  —  Recess. 

10.40-10.50  —  III  Word  Study  and  Phonetics. 
10.50-11.00  —  IV  Word  Study  and  Phonetics, 
ii.oo-ii.io  —  III  and  IV  Music. 
1 1 .10-1 1 .25  —  IV  History  or  Geography. 
.   1 1. 25-1 1.35 — Writing. 
1 1. 35-1 1. 50  —  III  Reading. 

1 1. 50-1 2.00  —  Optional.    Nature,  industrial  work,  physiology,  or 
any  needed  subject. 

1 .00-  I .  I  o  —  Opening  Exercises  and  Nature  Work. 

1. 10-  1.20  —  I  Reading. 

1.20-  1.35  —  II  Reading. 

1-35-  1-5°  —  ^11  Geography  or  History. 

1.50-  2.05  —  IV  Language. 

2.05-  2. 1  o  —  Physical  Exercises. 

2.10-  2.20  —  I  and  II  Drawing  or  Music. 

[54] 


STARTING  IN 

2.20-  2.35  —  III  and  IV  Drawing. 
2.35-  2.50  —  Recess. 
2,50-  3.05  —  III  Language. 
3.05-  3.20  —  IV  Reading. 
3.20-  3.30  —  Spelling. 

3.30-  3.45  —  Optional.     Stories,  industrial  work,  or  whatever 
easy  work  is  wished. 

Program  for  a  School  of  Five  Grades 

9,00-  9.15  —  Opening  Exercises. 

9.15-  9.30  —  I  Reading. 

9.30-  9.40  —  II  Word  Study  and  Phonetics. 

9.40-10.00 — fill,   IV,  and  V  Arithmetic.     Combination  for 
1 0.00- 10. 1 5  —  J       drills,  and  then  the  time  divided  as  seems  best; 

[     varying  each  day,  probably. 
10. 15-10. 20  —  Physical  Exercises. 
10.20-10.30  —  I  and  II  Number. 
10.30-10.45  —  Recess. 

10.45-10.55  —  r  III,  IV,  and  V  Phonetics  and  Word  Study.    Any 
1 0.5  5- 1 1.05  — J      combination  that  seems  best,  depending  upon 

[^     reading  arrangements. 
1 1 .05-1 1 . 1 5  —  Music. 

I  I.I  5-1 1 .30  — V,  or  IV  and  V  History  or  Geography. 
1 1 .30-1 1 .40  —  Writing. 
1 1. 40-1 2.00  —  III.  or  III  and  IV  Reading. 

1 .00-  I .  I  o  —  Opening  Exercises  and  Nature  Work. 

1. 10-  1.20  —  I  Reading. 

1.20-  1.35  —  II  Reading. 

1.35-  1.50  —  III,  or  III  and  IV  Geography  or  History. 

1.50-  2.05  — V,  or  IV  and  V  Language. 

2.05-  2.10  —  Physical  Exercises. 

2.10-  2.20  —  I  and  II  Drawing,  Music,  or  Writing. 

2.20-  2.35  —  Drawing  —  older  pupils. 

2.35-  2.50  —  Recess. 

2.50-  3.05  —  III,  or  III  and  IV  Language. 

3.05-  3.20  —  V,  or  IV  and  V  Reading. 

3.20-  3.30  —  SpeUing. 

3.30-  3.45  —  Optional.    Story,  industrial  or  other  easy  work. 

[55] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

These  programs  are  not  arbitrary,  but  merely  suggestive. 
If  the  session  does  not  close  till  four  o'clock,  a  few  periods 
may  be  lengthened,  another  optional  inserted,  or  one  for 
help  of  special  pupils — not  general  help.  If  combinations 
are  not  possible,  the  drawing  and  writing  may  alternate  ;  or 
the  industrial  work  and  drawing  and  nature  work  may  go 
to  Friday  afternoon,  or  once  a  week  may  take  the  place 
of  language,  arithmetic,  or  reading ;  or  the  drawing  and 
music  may  be  given  to  all,  instead  of  to  two  divisions  as 
allowed  by  the  program.  If  there  are  more  than  five  classes, 
the  same  plans  need  to  be  followed. 

The  points  to  be  observed  are  that  the  reading  for  the 
little  children  comes  early,  also  the  arithmetic  with  older 
pupils  ;  that  the  hours  from  eleven  to  twelve  and  from  one 
to  two,  being  not  very  favorable  ones,  are  not  given  to  such 
difficult  work,  except  for  the  little  children  who  have  had  a 
much  longer  resting  time.  They  are  supposed  to  go  home 
at  recess  or  else  amuse  themselves  afterwards  in  the  yard 
or  at  the  play  table,  the  recreation  being  planned  by  the 
teacher.  It  is  to  be  noticed  that  classes  alternate  as  far  as 
possible,  so  that  pupils  need  not  go  too  long  at  a  time 
without  recitation  work. 

REFERENCE 
Seating  plan.   Edward  E.  Babb  and  Company,  Boston. 


[56] 


CHAPTER  VI 

'       GOING  ON 

Work  should  be  well  planned :  use  of  executive  ability. 

After  the  work  is  opce  started,  the  teacher  should  make 
every  effort  to  keep  it  going  with  no  friction  or  loss  of 
time.  Everything  should  be  planned  to  this  end.  The 
teacher  should  go  to  school  early  and  stay  as  late  at 
night  as  is  necessary,  leaving  the  room  in  order  when 
she  starts  for  home.  Everything  possible  should  be  got 
ready  ahead.  The  children  should  be  trained  to  help,  to 
know  just  what  to  do,  and  how  to  do  it  in  the  easiest  and 
quickest  way.  Awkward  arrangement  for  passing  may 
make  a  marked  difference.  Sauntering  instead  of  going 
briskly  eats  up  a  lot  of  time.  Having  books  arranged  in 
order  will  save  many  minutes,  and  prompt  obedience  to 
directions  many  more.  The  skilled  workman  gains  as  much 
by  making  no  unnecessary  movements  as  by  moving 
more  quickly. 

The  teacher  should  always  be  on  the  watch  for  easier 
and  better  ways  of  doing  things,  for  making  everything 
count  in  a  day's  work.  She  should  cultivate  executive 
ability.  The  possession  of  this  quality  is  about  all  that 
distinguishes  the  master  workman  from  the  ordinary  day 
laborer  at  any  trade,  and  teaching  is  no  exception.  A  plan 
book,  in  which  is  entered  what  is  proposed  to  be  done  dur- 
ing a  day,  and  which  is  gone  over  at  night  to  see  how  far 

[57] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

one  has  failed  to  accomplish  plans  and  what  have  been 
the  reasons,  is  a  great  help. 

Care  to  have  things  right.  Care  in  assigning  lessons, 
so  that  no  time  need  be  spent  in  disputing,  is  essential. 
The  importance  and  character  of  the  assignment  of  lessons 
will  be  discussed  further  in  the  chapter  on  the  recitation. 
Exact  directions  regarding  written  papers  and  the  habit 
of  using  a  set  form  for  names  and  headings,  with  other 
like  things,  will  be  of  value.  Much  time  will  be  saved  if 
the  teacher  habitually  does  things  right  at  first  and  trains 
children  to  do  the  same. 

Arousing  interest.  Objective  work  will  brighten  impres- 
sions and  create  interest ;  so  will  encouragement  to  the  chil- 
dren to  talk  freely  and  to  question  in  any  subject.  There 
is  nothing  so  effective  in  teaching  as  getting  free,  natural 
expression  of  opinions  by  pupils.  They  should  tell  what 
they  think,  and  ask  what  they  want  to  know,  just  as  they 
naturally  do  out  of  school  hours.  Talking  not  only  arouses 
interest,  it  shows  what  the  child's  difficulties  are  and  makes 
them  easier  of  correction.  Teachers  are  afraid  of  chil- 
dren's questions,  and  the  lazy  teacher  regards  them  as  too 
much  work,  so  we  find  the  pupils  continually  frowned 
down,  till  they  become  contented  with  mere  rote  work  —  a 
condition  which  is  utterly  foreign  to  child  nature  anywhere. 

Work  important  and  necessary.  School  work  should  be 
made  so  pleasant  that  a  child  will  want  to  work.  He  should 
be  made  to  feel  the  importance  of  knowledge  in  general,  so 
that  he  will  want  to  learn  even  at  the  price  of  much  effort. 
This  is  inspirational  work.  Many  teachers  act  as  if  the 
getting  of  knowledge  were  not  of  the  slightest  importance, 
and  a  large  number  of  children  have  the  same  attitude, 

[58] 


GOING  ON 

together  with  a  feeUng  that  it  is  not  their  affair.  School 
and  home  should  combine  to  crush  the  wrong  attitude  in 
this  and  produce  the  right.    Neither  can  well  do  it  alone. 

Children  may  be  brought  to  a  state  where  they  will  look 
forward  eagerly  to  "knowing  a  lot"  and  be  willing  to  make 
the  necessary  effort.  Usually,  however,  the  impetus  must 
come  in  connection  with  particular  things.  Any  child 
will  work  uninterruptedly  if  by  that  means  he  sees  himself 
able  to  attain  some  greatly  desired  end.  It  becomes  the 
teacher's  problem  to  furnish  that  immediate  interest.  If 
all  possible  means  of  making  school  work  pleasant  are  em- 
ployed, and  if  the  pupil  clearly  sees  an  end  in  view,  he  will 
not  expect  nor  desire  to  escape  the  hard  work  that  must 
exist  in  school  just  as  much  as  everywhere  else  in  the  world. 

Things  should  be  ready.  Time  is  not  saved  either  in 
recitation  or  study  by  starting  before  one  is  prepared. 
Between  classes  the  teacher  should  see  that  things  are 
ready ;  that  desks  are  in  order,  all  noisy  and  unnecessary 
things  put  away,  material  where  it  can  be  got  at  easily, 
every  tool  at  hand.  She  should  answer  the  demands  of 
the  children  as  far  as  is  needed.  Acquaintance  will  make 
it  easy  for  her  to  judge.  When  all  the  studying  class  are 
settled  to  work,  then  she  may  give  her  attention  to  the 
division  reciting,  withdrawing  enough  of  it  to  keep  run  of 
what  the  rest  are  doing.  She  should  watch  her  school 
just  enough  to  know  what  is  going  on.  She  may,  if  she 
chooses,  answer  a  quiet  signal,  but  she  should  not  assist 
in  work  or  too  greatly  divide  her  attention. 

Children  should  be  taught  responsibility  and  judgment. 
The  children  at  the  desks  should  understand  that  hands  are 
not  to  be  raised  except  for  unusual  needs.   Much  has  been 

[59] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

accomplished  when  it  is  impressed  upon  a  school  that  they 
are  to  work  quietly  and  busily  by  themselves  until  the 
recitation  is  finished,  and  that  it  is  usually  selfish  to  inter- 
rupt. They  should  be  taught  that  if  a  tool  gives  out  or 
for  any  reason  they  are  unable  to  work  at  the  usual  thing, 
they  should  not  sit  idle  but  find  some  other  employment. 
A  newcomer  in  a  grammar  school,  on  being  unable  to 
obtain  the  use  of  the  large  school  dictionary,  sat  for  twenty 
minutes  and  waited  for  a  chance.  Any  regular  pupil  of 
the  school,  having  ascertained  by  a  glance  that  no  oppor- 
tunity was  afforded  her,  would  have  turned  immediately 
to  something  else  and  worked  during  the  waiting  time. 

Study  work  should  be  independent.  Though  the  teacher 
should  not  give  much  help  to  the  studying  child  during 
her  recitations,  yet  she  should  take  some  means  to  ascer- 
tain how  her  children  study.  This  may  be  done  sometimes 
during  their  recitation  periods,  or  by  taking  an  occasional 
period  to  superintend  only,  or  by  means  of  out-of-school 
helping  times,  or  by  casual  observation  and  conversation. 
She  should  try  to  teach  right  habits  of  study.  As  has  just 
been  said,  pupils  need  to  be  busy,  and  it  is  usually  better 
for  them  to  work  individually.  Studying  together,  helping 
each  other,  and  the  like  are  all  open  to  objections.  Too 
often  the  children  play  instead  of  working,  or  if  they  work, 
one  usually  does  much  more  than  the  other.  If  older  chil- 
dren help  younger,  the  older  is  often  wasting  his  time.  If 
he  can  spare  it,  he  might  well  be  advanced  a  grade  instead. 
The  help  given  by  the  older  child  consists  too  often  in 
doing  the  work  himself.  It  is,  at  best,  injudicious  help, 
and  though  it  may  serve  occasionally,  it  should  not  be 
too  frequent. 

[60] 


GOING  ON 

Change  of  work  or  leaving  places.  The  smallest  chil- 
dren should  not  be  allowed  to  work  in  school  much  more 
than  three  hours  a  day.  If  they  must  be  in  the  room 
throughout  the  session,  as  is  often  the  case  in  a  rural 
school  during  the  winter  term,  they  should  be  furnished 
with  a  large  variety  of  work  that  is  in  itself  play  or  even 
with  regular  play  if  quietly  carried  on.  Dolls,  building- 
blocks,  softly  running  toys,  and  other  interesting  material 
that  will  be  mentioned  elsewhere  are  perfectly  legitimate. 
They  may  be  allowed  to  leave  their  seats  to  go  to  their 
"  library,"  construction  table,  or  play  corner,  when  their 
assigned  work  is  finished.  Older  ones  may  have  per- 
mission to  consult  the  dictionary  or  get  reference  books, 
but  the  teacher  should  know  the  reason  for  any  moving 
about  and  will  frequently  have  to  regulate  the  conditions, 
else  the  study  time  will  be  a  time  of  general  migration. 

Means  to  be  employed  to  get  work  done.  School  exists 
for  training  children  to  good  habits,  and  for  the  doing  of 
educative  work.  Many  incentives  will  have  to  be  employed 
to  secure  the  accomplishment  of  school  work.  The  chief 
and  best  incentive  is  furnished  by  arousing  in  the  children 
a  desire  to  know,  both  generally  and  in  the  particular  in- 
stance. This  is  the  work  of  time  and  inspiration.  Too 
great  emphasis  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  value  of  arousing 
an  immediate  interest  which  is  to  satisfy  an  immediate 
need.  As  preliminary  and  supplementary  to  this,  many 
means  will  have  to  be  used.  The  privilege  of  taking  home 
good  work  serves  well  with  smaller  children,  as  does  the 
display  of  it  upon  the  school  curtain.  One  is  surprised  to 
find  the  value  attached  to  this  by  little  children,  though 
we  are  all  pleased  by  modifications  of  this  form  of  approval. 

[6i] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Prizes  of  various  kinds  may  secure  good  work,  but  the 
dangers  attending  the  use  are  so  great  as  to  have  thrown 
them  into  marked  disrepute.  They  are  certainly  unsafe 
in  the  hands  of  young  teachers. 

Keeping  in  at  recess  and  after  school  is  perhaps  one  of 
the  most  abused  means.  Recesses  should  be  for  play  and 
rest,  and  the  idle  or  dull  child  is  seldom  made  less  idle  or 
dull  by  loss  of  recreation  periods.  The  slow  child  needs 
his  resting  time  as  much  as  the  quick  one.  Keeping  after 
school  is  better  and  must  be  done  sometimes,  but  care 
should  be  taken  lest  it  be  prolonged  too  far  or  occur  too 
often.  If  it  is  to  last  many  minutes,  the  child  should  have 
a  rest  before  settling  down  to  it.  It  is  often  necessary  to 
help  children  after  school.  If  a  child  is  to  stay  for  such 
help,  he  should  be  allowed  a  recess  or  relaxing  work  for 
a  short  time  preceding  the  close  of  school.  Doing  indi- 
vidual work  with  a  child  out  of  school  and  detaining  him 
for  unfinished  tasks  are  two  different  things,  the  child 
being  in  a  very  different  attitude. 

Home  work.  Home  work  is  a  much-discussed  problem. 
In  a  rural  school  where  terms  are  short  and  home  enter- 
tainment limited,  it  is  not  very  objectionable.  In  other 
cases  it  needs  to  have  careful  consideration.  Unfinished 
work  might  often  be  completed  better  at  home  than  at 
school.  Work  calling  for  strong  thought  by  the  child  may 
better  be  done  at  school.  Supplementary  work  like  corre- 
lated reading  is  excellent  for  home  employment.  Since  the 
child's  school  day  is  as  long  in  proportion  to  his  develop- 
ment and  strength  as  his  father's  working  day,  the  assign- 
ment of  a  considerable  amount  of  work  to  all  pupils,  every 
day,  to  be  done  at  home  is  of  questionable  advantage. 

[62] 


GOING  ON 

Tests  and  rank.  Tests  are  used  presumably  as  a  means 
of  determining  a  child's  progress,  but  they  serve  as  a  very 
large  incentive  to  work.  Incidentally,  in  connection  with 
rank,  they  also  serve  wonderfully  as  an  incentive  to  worry 
and  dishonesty.  A  teacher  should  use  great  care  in  hand- 
ling both  the  testing  and  the  ranking.  A  written  test  is 
valuable  in  helping  to  get  ideas  into  line,  but  made  a  large, 
or  the  only,  factor  in  determining  promotion,  it  is  wholly 
unfair  and  cruel.  Tests  are  frequently  merely  traps,  or,  at 
best,  memory  tests.  School  should  train  more  than  the 
memory.  Wntten  lessons,  divested  of  the  large  element 
of  worry,  are  useful  and  should  be  employed  freely ;  tests, 
sparingly  and  with  judgment. 

Rank  depends  largely  upon  the  teacher's  mood.  It  is 
much  better  for  word  estimates  to  be  employed  in  marking 
rank,  instead  of  figures.  For  a  teacher  to  be  required  to 
keep  marks  of  any  kind  for  her  pupils  in  each  recitation 
is  to  spoil  her  direct  work  in  the  teaching  process  in  nearly 
all  cases,  though  it  may  be  well  to  estimate  each  child's 
recitation  in  an  occasional  lesson,  to  serve  as  a  test  for  the 
teacher's  general  estimate  of  worth.  Rank  has  far  too 
large  a  place  as  an  incentive  to  good  work.  It  does  not 
furnish  a  high  motive. 

Promotions.  Promotion  should  depend  upon  general 
knowledge  and  general  power.  A  child  should  be  sent  to 
a  higher  grade  when,  in  the  judgment  of  the  teacher,  he 
will  gain  more  from  work  there  than  from  a  repetition  of 
what  he  has  already  gone  over.  Promotion  should  often 
be  based  upon  power  rather  than  achievement.  A  fixed 
amount  of  work  is  needed  in  some  subjects,  where  ability 
to  go  on  depends  upon  actual  knowledge,  as  is  the  case  in 

[63] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

arithmetic  and  grammar ;  but  a  pupil  can  do  good  work 
in  geography,  history,  reading,  spelling,  drawing,  and  many 
other  subjects  if  he  has  not  learned  all  the  geographical 
or  historical  facts,  done  the  special  reading,  or  spelled  the 
particular  words  of  the  preceding  grade.  This  is  doubtless 
the  reason  why  arithmetic  and  grammar  have  been  made 
the  basis  of  promotion  in  so  many  schools.  Yet  even  here 
it  is  safe  to  be  careful.  Reading  is  surely  a  better  guide 
with  younger  children.  If  a  child  can  read,  he  can  acquire 
much  information  in  all  subjects.  Grammar  is  rapidly 
passing  out  of  style  in  elementary  schools,  and  the  lan- 
guage work  that  is  taking  its  place  does  not  have  its  parts 
so  dependent  upon  each  other.  Arithmetic  is  the  most 
isolated  subject.  One  may  be  a  dunce  in  it  and  yet  be  a 
useful  and  cultured  citizen.  To  base  promotion  upon  this 
subject  is  manifestly  unfair  in  many  instances. 

We  are  too  rigorous  rather  than  too  easy  regarding 
promotion,  and  we  too  often  base  it  upon  wrong  things. 
Figures  will  not  always  tell  the  tale.  One  child  may  be 
perfectly  able  to  do  the  work  but  fail  of  particular  knowl- 
edge ;  he  may  well  be  brought  up  by  extra  work.  Another 
fails  through  general  immaturity  or  lack  of  power ;  he 
should  be  held,  though  rarely  more  than  once  in  the 
same  grade.  A  teacher  should  not  have  a  wrong  attitude 
toward  the  child  who  does  not  come  quite  up  to  her 
standard  for  admission  to  her  grade.  Many  things  have 
to  be  taken  into  consideration  in  determining  a  pupil's 
place  in  school,  and  it  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  a  child 
has  periods  of  advance  and  retard  mentally,  that  some 
children  cannot  learn  some  things,  and  that  the  school  as 
an  institution  exists  for  the  education  of  the  child  and  must 

[64] 


GOING  ON 

lend  itself  willingly  to  whatever  best  promotes  that  educa- 
tion. If  ever  the  great  strain  produced  by  fear  regarding 
the  grade  above  can  be  removed,  promotions  will  be  better 
made  and  a  large  obstacle  to  our  educational  progress  done 
away  with.  The  teacher,  relieved  of  the  dread  that  a  par- 
ticular child  may  not  be  pronounced  worthy,  can  teach 
that  child  and  all  her  class  in  better  fashion. 

Promotions  should  of  course  occur  more  frequently  than 
once  a  year.  It  is  only  a  rare  case  when  a  child  is  a  whole 
year  behind  his  class  or  can  be  at  once  thrust  a  whole  year 
ahead.  Semiannual  promotions  are  much  better,  but  even 
these  fail  to  meet  the  needs  of  a  large  number.  The  best 
plan,  when  it  can  be  arranged,  is  work  on  the  group  idea, 
a  child  being  pushed  from  group  to  group  as  his  progress 
requires.  This  is  easily  brought  about  in  classes  of  younger 
children  and  is  practicable  in  many  of  the  more  advanced 
classes.  In  the  subjects  less  essential  for  promotion  the 
classes  may  work  as  a  whole  and  be  grouped  only  when  it 
is  necessary. 

Report  cards.  The  home  report  card  should  form  a 
means  of  communication  between  teacher  and  parent.  At 
present  it  too  often  seems  to  speak  a  foreign  tongue  to  the 
parents,  who  see  ranks  falling  below  requirement  month 
after  month  and  are  yet  dazed  with  surprise  at  failure  of 
promotion.  Report  cards  might  well  take  the  form  of 
monthly  notes  to  parents,  stating  conditions  and  needs 
regarding  the  child.  The  regular  report  card,  as  now 
used,  should  at  least  be  supplemented  by  a  note  in  cases 
where  home  stimulus  is  necessary  or  where  explanation 
is  needed.  If  we  could  succeed  in  establishing  rather  dif- 
ferent and  closer  relations  between  home  and  school,  such 

[65] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

as  are  aimed  at  by  parent-teacher  associations,  much  might 
be  accomplished.  The  rural  school  has  advantages  over 
the  city  or  village  in  many  of  these  particulars. 

Attendance.  The  attendance  record  should  be  kept 
carefully.  The  card  with  the  child's  name  upon  it  may  be 
slipped  out,  to  be  returned  when  he  arrives  and  accounts 
for  his  absence,  if  attendance  is  kept  by  means  of  the  seat- 
ing plan.  A  book  record  should  be  made  also.  Regularity  of 
attendance  should  be  insisted  upon  as  far  as  possible.  No 
child  who  is  really  ill  should  come  to  school,  nor  should  the 
teacher  frown  upon  absence  when  the  weather  is  entirely 
unsuitable,  but  she  should  know  why  the  child  is  absent, 
and  all  absence  or  tardiness  for  causes  that  the  teacher's 
judgment  pronounces  unreasonable  should  be  looked  after 
as  far  as  she  is  able.  Elevating  the  pupils'  ideals,  estab- 
lishing interest  in  work,  creating  a  general  school  spirit, 
appealing  to  child  or  parent  individually,  are  means  that 
may  be  used.  Devices  such  as  races,  cards  with  "  All  pres- 
ent," or  flags  for  different  rows  may  be  tried.  One  teacher 
sent  home  for  the  children  and  soon  had  no  need  to  do  so. 

If  a  teacher  can  but  establish  confidence  in  herself 
throughout  school  and  community,  making  children  and 
parents  feel  that  the  school  work  is  such  that  they  cannot 
afford  to  miss  it  and  that  the  teacher  has  both  good  judg- 
ment and  right  intentions,  many  of  these  troublesome  things 
will  adjust  themselves.  It  cannot  be  done  in  a  day  nor  a 
week,  but  time  and  effort  will  accomplish  much, 

REFERENCE 

Teachers'  Plan  Book  and  Progress  Record.  Milton  Bradley 
Company,  Boston  or  Springfield. 

[66] 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  PHYSICAL  COMFORT  OF  THE  CHILD 

Teacher  responsible  for  health.  One  of  the  things  to 
which  it  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  give  much  attention 
is  the  securing  of  the  physical  comfort  of  the  child,  both 
during  the  time  he  is  in  school  and  for  the  future.  The 
teacher  is  in  the  place  of  the  parent  during  a  large  part 
of  the  day.  In  many  ways  she  has  a  better  opportunity  to 
observe  the  child  than  has  the  mother,  as  during  the  home 
hours  he  is  either  getting  adjusted  to  the  conditions  of  the 
day  or  else  is  fatigued  by  his  work  at  school.  The  teacher 
is  often  better  informed  regarding  child  hygiene  than  is 
the  parent,  and  at  any  rate  should  know  as  much  about  it. 
The  fact  that  the  children  are  grouped  together  in  more 
or  less  crowded  rooms  brings  a  larger  responsibility  and  a 
greater  need  for  extra  care.  Every  teacher  should  feel  and 
act  as  if  she  combined  in  herself  the  offices  of  both  mother 
and  physician. 

The  room  should  be  comfortable.  One  of  the  first  essen- 
tials is  a  comfortable  room.  The  temperature  shauld  be 
regulated  by  a  thermometer,  the  degree  at  which  it  should 
stand  depending  somewhat  upon  conditions,  since  if  the 
floor  is  cold,  one  may  suffer  in  a  room  whose  temperature 
is  apparently  correct.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  when 
the  thermometer  is  above  seventy  degrees  the  room  is  too 

[67] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

warm  for  good  work,  neither  should  it  fall  below  sixty-five, 
and  sixty-eight  is  about  normal. 

Cold-air  schools  are  all  right  and  very  desirable  in  cer- 
tain circumstances,  but  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  children 
in  such  schools  are  dressed  for  out-of-door  living.  One 
should  not  try  to  run  a  cold-air  school  in  a  room  that  pre- 
tends to  be  heated  and  whose  ventilation  is  not  suitably 
planned.  As  a  usual  thing  children  should  not  sit  in  an 
ordinary  schoolroom,  wearing  the  wraps  which  will  consti- 
tute their  protection  when  they  go  out  of  doors.  If  a  room 
that  is  supposed  to  be  heated  is  cold  enough  so  that  chil- 
dren need  out-of-door  garments  to  be  comfortable,  the 
scheme  of  work  or  the  arrangements  for  heating  should  be 
changed,  yet  too  hot  a  room  is  as  bad  as  too  cold  a  one. 

The  ventilation  should  be  looked  after,  windows  being 
opened  at  proper  intervals,  but  care  should  be  taken  to 
keep  the  children  exercising  actively  while  the  windows  are 
wide.  I  have  seen  windows  opened  in  the  midst  of  winter, 
and  the  air  suffered  to  blow  directly  on  heads,  necks,  and 
backs  of  delicate  children  who  were  thinly  clad.  Some  chil- 
dren can  stand  this  heroic  treatment,  but  others  cannot. 
Some  wise  teacher  said,  "  Better  a  little  slow  poison  than 
so  much  sure  death,"  and  his  is  a  good  rule  to  follow. 
When  windows  furnish  the  only  ventilation,  a  screen  of 
cheesecloth  in  a  rough  wooden  frame  fitted  into  the 
window  will  admit  the  air  but  prevent  the  draft.  A  board 
may  be  adjusted  to  the  lower  sash  and  the  window  raised 
upon  this,  so  that  an  opening  for  air  is  made  between  the 
sashes.  In  usual  weather,  if  drafts  are  guarded  against, 
there  is  no  reason  why  abundant  air  should  not  be  admitted 
through  open  windows  all  day  long,  and  in  any  schoolroom 

[68] 


THE  PHYSICAL  COMFORT  OF  THE  CHILD 

the  windows  should  be  opened  and  the  air  thoroughly 
changed  during  the  giving  of  physical  exercises  and  at 
other  times  when  the  teacher's  judgment  pronounces  it 
necessary.  It  is  helpful  for  the  teacher  to  step  into  the 
pure  air  for  a  moment  occasionally,  as  in  this  way  she  is 
more  sure  to  detect  trouble  in  the  air  of  the  room. 

Flies.  Flies  make  a  room  very  uncomfortable  and  are 
also  a  well-known  source  of  disease.  Things  that  might 
tempt  them,  like  apple  cores,  remnants  of  luncheons,  and 
dirty  faces,  should  be  looked  after.  Screens  may  be  made 
by  tacking  mosquito  netting  over  the  whole  window  frame. 
A  length  may  even  be  fastened  at  the  top  of  the  door,  but 
of  course  flies  will  creep  in,  in  spite  of  precautions.  Means 
of  disposing  of  them  are  suggested  in  the  following  extract 
from  an  article  on  the  subject,  in  the  World's  Work  of 
August,  19 1  o.  The  same  article  is  given  in  the  National 
GeograpJiic  Magazine  for  May,  19 10.  Some  one  of  these 
ought  to  be  obtained  easily.  Sticky  fly  paper  will  do  the 
work,  but  its  effect  destroys  much  of  the  good  from  our 
teaching  kindness  to  animals. 

To  clear  rooms  of  flies,  carbolic  acid  may  be  used  as  follows :  heat 
a  shovel  or  any  similar  article  and  drop  thereon  twenty  drops  of 
carbolic  acid.    The  vapor  kills  the  flies. 

A  cheap  and  perfectly  reliable  fly-poison,  one  which  is  not  dan- 
gerous to  human  life,  is  bichromate  of  potash  in  solution.  Dissolve 
one  dram,  which  can  be  bought  at  any  drug  store,  in  two  ounces  of 
water  and  add  a  little  sugar.  Put  some  of  this  solution  in  shallow 
dishes  and  distribute  them  about  the  house. 

A  spoonful  of  formalin  (or  formaldehyde  in  water)  put  into  a 
quarter  of  a  pint  of  water  and  exposed  in  the  room  will  be  enough  to 
kill  all  the  flies.  To  quickly  clear  the  room  where  there  are  many 
flies,  burn  pyrethrum  powder  in  the  room.  This  stupefies  the  flies, 
and  they  may  be  swept  up  and  burned. 

[69] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Desks  and  chairs.  The  desks  and  chairs  should  be 
made  as  nearly  comfortable  as  circumstances  will  allow. 
It  is  probably  too  much  to  expect  that  they  be  really  fitted 
to  the  child,  though  the  time  for  the  absolute  demand  for 
that  is  slowly  approaching.  At  any  rate,  if  a  child  cannot 
reach  to  his  desk  top  and  cannot  touch  the  floor  with  his 
feet,  he  may  be  given  a  board  to  lift  his  chair  and  a  box  to 
put  his  feet  upon.  Of  course  it  is  better  that  the  chair  or 
desk  be  really  raised  upon  the  board,  but  the  board  may  be 
merely  put  upon  the  chair  if  the  teacher  has  not  the  manual 
skill  to  do  the  work  properly.  These  are  little  things,  and 
they  do  not  make  the  room  more  attractive  in  appearance, 
but  they  are  aids  to  the  health  of  the  pupils.  If  a  teacher 
does  not  know  how  high  desk  and  chair  should  be,  she  may 
find  out  by  means  of  two  simple  measurements.  Seat  the 
child  well  back  on  a  table,  with  his  legs  hanging  down  and 
his  arm  bent  so  the  lower  arm  will  be  horizontal  and  the 
upper  arm  held  close  against  the  side.  Place  a  board  beneath 
the  feet,  and  measure  the  distance  from  the  board  to  the  top 
of  the  table  for  height  of  chair,  and  from  the  board  to 
the  lower  side  of  arm  for  height  of  desk  top.  Call  any 
fraction  of  an  inch  a  whole  inch  in  the  last  measurement 
—  that  for  the  desk  —  and  subtract  any  fraction  of  an  inch 
in  the  measurement  for  height  of  chair. 

Children  should  be  watched  for  habits  like  dropping  the 
head  too  low  over  the  work,  sitting  on  one  foot,  working 
with  one  shoulder  higher  than  the  other,  laying  the  head 
on  the  desk  during  work,  and  many  such  things,  which  run 
as  real  epidemics  through  a  school.  The  comfort  of  a  child 
is  sometimes  greatly  increased  by  a  little  care  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  as  to  how  the  sun  shines  upon  his  work. 

[70] 


THE  PHYSICAL  COMFORT  OF  THE  CHILD 

Nervous  children  are  often  very  susceptible  to  things  like 
this,  and  it  is  worth  while  to  look  out  for  such  children. 

Physical  defects.  The  teacher  should  be  constantly  on 
the  watch  to  discover  physical  defects  and  should  do  her 
best  to  get  them  remedied  when  such  remedy  is  possible. 
It  is  a  most  excellent  plan  to  send  to  parents  regular 
reports  containing  statements  of  the  child's  health  as  ob- 
served by  the  teacher  and  calling  attention  to  any  physical 
troubles,  such  as  rounded  or  uneven  shoulders,  depressed 
head,  decaying  teeth,  adenoids,  deafness,  or  any  eye  diffi- 
culties. Teachers  should  urge  parents  to  have  a  careful 
examination,  by  the  family  physician,  of  children  whose 
work  is  unsatisfactory  or  who  give  evidence  of  any  physical 
defects. 

Compulsory  medical  inspection,  which  is  making  for  it- 
self so  firm  a  hold  in  many  places,  is  of  course  what  is 
needed,  but  there  still  remains  much  for  the  teacher  to  do 
personally.  She  will  often  find  her  efforts  unwelcome  and 
unproductive,  but  most  parents  have  their  children's  inter- 
ests at  heart,  and  though  it  must  be  expected  that  there 
will  be  prejudice  difficult  to  break  down  in  many  cases,  the 
response  is  usually  promptly  and  gratefully  given.  At  any 
rate  the  effort  should  be  made  —  not  once,  but  again  and 
again  till  good  results  appear.  A  great  deal  of  the  inat- 
tention, stubbornness,  exasperating  behavior,  nervousness, 
and  real  illness  arises  from  eye  strain  or  inability  to  hear, 
and  when  these  physical  troubles  are  corrected  the  problems 
disappear. 

Tests  of  eyesight.  Tests  of  sight  should  be  made  by 
every  teacher  at  least  once  a  year,  and  oftener  when  there 
are  indications  of  any  trouble.    Such  tests  are  frequently 

[71]  i 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

required  by  law,  but  the  teacher  should  give  them  not  be- 
cause she  is  compelled  to  do  so  but  because  she  finds  in 
them  a  means  for  increasing  her  efficiency.  These  tests 
are  made  by  means  of  the  Snellen  test  types,  which  may 
be  obtained  free  from  the  town  or  county  superintendent 
or  from  the  office  of  the  state  superintendent  of  schools. 
If  one  fails  to  secure  them  from  these  sources,  they  may 
be  had  from  any  optician  or  dealer  in  optical  supplies,  at 
a  very  small  cost. 

These  cards  contain  several  rows  of  letters,  each  row 
differing  from  the  rest  in  size.  Above  the  rows  is  given 
the  distance  at  which  they  should  be  read  —  as,  ten  feet 
for  smallest,  twenty  for  next,  and  so  on,  to  perhaps  fifty 
feet.  The  test  card  should  be  hung  in  a  good  light,  at  about 
the  level  of  the  child's  head.  He  should  take  a  position 
directly  in  front  of  the  card  and  at  the  distance  from  it 
indicated  by  the  number  above  the  row  of  smallest  letters. 
He  should  cover  one  eye,  without  closing  it,  by  holding  a 
card  in  front  of  it.  He  should  then  read  by  means  of  the 
other  eye  as  many  of  the  letters  as  he  can,  beginning  with 
the  largest  ones.  If  he  cannot  see  the  largest  letters,  he 
should  approach  the  card  till  he  can.  The  other  eye  should 
be  tested  in  the  same  way,  but  the  pupil  should  rest  a 
minute  before  the  trial  is  made.  Children  who  do  not 
know  the  letters  may  be  tested  by  using  similar  cards, 
containing,  instead  of  a  variety  of  letters,  the  letter  E 
placed  in  different  positions,  they  being  required  to  tell 
in  which  direction  the  arms  point. 

When  not  in  use  the  card  should  be  most  carefully  kept 
from  the  observation  of  the  pupils,  as  children  very  readily 
memorize  the  letters,  which  renders  the  test  absolutely 

I  [72] 


THE  PHYSICAL  COMFORT  OF  THE  CHILD 

useless.  Even  when  the  card  is  presented  only  during 
the  test,  it  is  well  to  make  very  sure  by  using,  besides 
the  reading  in  order,  a  test  in  which  a  piece  of  cardboard 
with  a  small  square  hole  cut  in  it  is  placed  over  the  letters 
in  irregular  order.  Each  pupil  should  be  tested  without 
the  others  being  present,  so  that  there  may  be  less  danger 
of  memorizing,  and  this  should  hold  true  even  of  those 
who  have  themselves  been  tested,  because  the  same  cards 
may  be  used  later  in  making  another  test. 

Not  being  able  to  see  a  whole  row  of  letters  usually 
means  nearsightedness,  while  miscalling  certain  letters  in  a 
line  indicates  astigmatism.  Both  troubles  need  correction 
by  glasses,  but  while  nearsightedness  may  be  helped  out  by 
seating  in  a  favorable  position,  astigmatism  must  depend 
upon  glasses  alone.  A  single  mistake,  however,  may  not 
indicate  a  trouble  sufficient  to  need  correction,  and  the 
teacher  has  to  use  her  judgment  here  as  elsewhere.  Some- 
times the  child  is  only  careless  and  can  read  correctly  if  he 
looks  more  carefully.  If  there  is  much  difference  between 
the  two  eyes,  special  attention  should  be  given  to  getting 
the  trouble  corrected,  as  a  great  amount  of  eye  and  nerve 
strain  results  from  effort  to  accommodate  two  differing 
eyes  to  the  same  work. 

A  record  should  be  made  of  the  result  of  the  eye  test. 
This  result  may  be  stated  in  the  form  of  a  fraction,  whose 
numerator  is  the  distance  at  which  the  child  stands  from 
the  card,  and  the  denominator  the  number  over  the  smallest 
line  he  can  read.  If  the  pupil  stands  twenty  feet  from  the 
card  and  can  read  no  smaller  letters  than  those  of  the  row 
labeled  forty  feet,  his  record  should  read  |^,  which  repre- 
sents one  half  normal  vision.  The  teacher's  record  should 

[73]' 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

contain  any  other  points  regarding  the  child's  eyes  which 
may  help  to  produce  understanding  of  their  condition. 

Notices  should  be  sent  to  parents  of  all  whose  tests  fall 
much  below  normal  or  whose  eyes  differ.  The  teacher 
should  also  notify  if  there  is  inflammation  of  eyes  or  eye- 
lids, if  there  is  complaint  of  the  eyes  aching,  if  the  eyes 
turn  in  or  outward,  —  indicating  a  muscular  trouble,  —  if  the 
child  holds  the  book  very  near  his  eyes,  if  he  scowls  or 
holds  the  head  habitually  on  one  side,  or  if  he  has  head- 
aches or  is  nervous.  With  such  a  report  should  go  always 
a  recommendation  that  a  further  examination  be  made  and 
the  trouble  corrected  if  possible. 

If  parents  do  not  wish  to  have  the  child  wear  glasses, 
the  teacher  must  do  her  best  to  favor  him  in  school.  Usu- 
ally the  glasses  will  be  forthcoming  if  the  parent  is  con- 
vinced that  the  child's  work  and  health  are  suffering  from 
this  cause.  A  potent  argument  is  the  very  true  one  that 
allowing  the  glasses  now  may  mean  that  when  the  child  is 
grown  he  may  in  all  probability  do  without  them. 

Hearing.  Hearing  tests  are  very  necessary.  The  test- 
ing may  be  done  by  means  of  a  watch  or  a  whisper.  The 
watch  test  would  be  the  more  reliable  of  the  two  if  watches 
did  not  vary  so  much  in  volume  of  sound.  If  the  same 
watch  —  a  loud-ticking  one  —  is  used  for  all  the  tests,  one 
may  ascertain  fairly  well  whether  the  hearing  is  normal. 

The  test  should  be  made  in  a  large  room  which  is  as 
quiet  as  possible.  The  two  ears  should  be  tested  sepa- 
rately. The  child  should  close  his  eyes,  and  the  ear  not 
being  tested  should  be  plugged  with  cotton.  The  teacher 
should  find  out  what  is  the  greatest  distance  at  which  the 
pupil  can  hear  the  tick  of  the  watch  when  held  at  the  level 

[74] 


THE  PHYSICAL  COMFORT  OF  THE  CHILD 

of  the  ear  and  on  the  prolongation  of  the  Hne  which  joins 
the  two  ears.  Several  tests  should  be  made  for  each  ear, 
the  watch  being  moved  back  and  forth.  It  should  also 
be  covered,  or  some  other  means  used  to  find  if  the  pupil 
really  hears,  or  only  imagines  he  does.  A  loud-ticking  watch 
should  be  heard  at  a  distance  of  at  least  five  or  six  feet. 
It  is  to  be  remembered  that  a  perfectly  quiet  room  is  un- 
usual, and  this  test  is  perhaps  more  useful  to  discover  a 
great  lack  of  power  to  hear  or  differences  between  the  two 
ears  than  to  determine  the  exact  distance  of  hearing. 

The  whisper  test  is  probably  the  best  for  general  use. 
It  is  said  that  a  loud  whisper  should  be  heard  at  sixty  feet, 
a  low  one  at  about  forty,  but  the  conditions  are  frequently 
so  poor  that  it  is  perhaps  better  for  a  teacher  to  set  a 
standard  of  about  twenty-five  or  thirty  feet  and  judge  by 
that.  The  preparation  of  eyes  and  ears  should  be  as  for 
the  watch  test.  The  child  should  be  expected  to  repeat 
things  said  by  the  teacher,  who  will  give  him  short  sen- 
tences, words,  or  numbers.  Another  simple  test  is  to  place 
the  pupil  with  his  back  toward  the  teacher,  and  then  let 
him  follow  whispered  directions  for  simple  movements. 

The  ordinary  tests  for  hearing  are  much  less  reliable 
than  are  those  for  sight,  but  they  will  make  the  teacher 
aware  of  any  real  difficulty,  and  if  such  is  found,  the  parent 
should  be  urged  to  have  a  physician's  examination.  Notice 
should  be  sent  if  the  tests  seem  unusually  short,  and  par- 
ticularly if  there  is  a  marked  difference  between  the  two 
ears.  The  parent  should  be  notified  also  if  the  child  shows 
other  signs  of  deafness,  like  inattention,  asking  for  repeti- 
tion, or  dullness  in  school  work.  Many  times  the  deafness 
is  due  to  hardened  earwax  or  catarrh  or  adenoids,  and 

[75] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

proper  treatment  may  correct  it.  Sometimes  the  trouble 
cannot  be  remedied,  in  which  case  the  pupil  should  be 
seated  near  the  front  and  encouraged  to  turn  his  head  in 
the  direction  of  the  sound  and  to  watch  the  lips  of  one 
speaking.    Great  consideration  should  be  shown  him. 

It  behooves  the  teacher  to  find  out  and  remedy  the 
troubles  in  hearing  for  her  own  sake  as  well  as  the  child's. 
If  a  child  cannot  hear,  he  learns  with  difficulty,  is  often 
misunderstood,  and  seems  either  careless  or  stubborn  — 
sometimes  really  becoming  so.  If  he  does  not  hear  what 
is  going  on  and  is  not  underwitted,  he  seeks  some  form 
of  entertainment  and  so  becomes  a  disturber  of  the  peace, 
nor  can  he  be  rightfully  blamed  for  doing  so. 

Adenoids.  If  a  teacher  finds  in  her  school  great,  over- 
grown children,  dull,  rude,  clownish,  causing  constant 
trouble,  she  should  be  on  the  lookout  for  adenoids,  for  nine 
out  of  every  ten  of  such  children  have  these  drawbacks  to 
health,  good  behavior,  and  progress.  If  she  finds  others 
nervous,  anaemic,  subject  to  colds,  talking  thickly,  with 
narrow  jaw  and  irregular,  crowded  teeth,  and  unable  to 
breathe  except  through  the  mouth,  she  may  expect  to  find 
the  same  trouble.  Much  of  the  deafness,  also,  comes  from 
this  source,  although  it  is  difficult  to  trace  the  deafness  to 
its  cause,  since  the  child  who  has  adenoids  is  much  deafer 
at  some  times  than  at  others. 

Teachers  who  find  this  menace  to  a  child's  development 
and  get  it  remedied  will  perform  a  saving  service  of  more 
value  to  the  pupil  than  the  giving  of  many  lessons.  Par- 
ents are  getting  aroused  to  the  importance  of  looking  after 
adenoids,  but  there  is  still  much  more  to  be  accomplished. 
Many  cases  have  been  known  in  which  the  insistence  of 

[76] 


THE  PHYSICAL  COMFORT  OF  THE  CHILD 


the  child  himself  was  necessary  to  spur  the  parents  to 
action,  but  such  insistence  often  comes  too  late,  as  before 
the  child  is  old  enough  to  realize  his  own  needs  the  jaw 
may  be  permanently  deformed,  the  health  permanently 
injured,  and  the  mouth-breathing  habit  so  fixed  as  to  be 
almost  impossible  of  correction. 

Decayed  teeth.  Often  parents  are  entirely  unaware  that 
decayed  teeth  will  bring  more  dangers  to  their  child's 
health  than  will  most  of  the  greatly  dreaded  contagious 
diseases.  Insufficiently  masticated  food  brings  on  digestive 
disturbances  that  will 
in  turn  cause  nervous- 
ness, eye  troubles,  and 
other  bodily  disorders. 
Decaying  teeth,  with 
the  accompanying  bac- 
teria and  the  fruitful 
field  for  a  reception 
of  germs  from  outside 
sources,  are  really  re- 
sponsible for  many  of 
the  contagious  diseases.  Children  with  poor  teeth  and  the 
physical  troubles  incident  to  them  are  often  behind  in  their 
studies.  Teachers  should  see  that  parents  are  informed 
of  all  these  things. 

Drinking  cup.  The  common  drinking  cup  is  a  well- 
known  source  of  disease,  but  there  are  schools  where  the 
pail  and  long-handled  dipper  still  prevail.  The  individual 
cup  is  not  greatly  better,  for  it  is  seldom  perfectly  clean. 
The  best  way  would  be  for  the  children  to  have  light  tin 
cups  which  could  be  carried  back  and  forth  easily  and 


Plan  for  Drinking  Cup 


Fold  a  6-  or  8-  inch  square  on  the  diagonal  AB  j 

then  fold  A  to  A;  fold  B  to  B ;  fold  the  comer 

C  toward  front,  on  line  BA  ;  fold  remaining 

comer  toward  back,  on  same  line 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

which  should  take  frequent  journeys  home  in  addition  to 
frequent  school  baths.  Too  great  drinking  at  school  should 
be  discouraged,  till  it  can  be  done  with  perfect  safety.  The 
drinking  fountain  solves  the  difficulty  for  schools  where 
there  is  running  water,  but  the  problem  of  the  rural  school 
is  yet  unsolved.  The  paper  drinking  cups  are  still  too  ex- 
pensive to  be  used  generally  in  such  places,  though  chil- 
dren may  be  taught  to  fold  cups  for  themselves.  Care 
should  be  taken  that  fingers  and  papers  are  clean. 

Dry  sweeping.  Dry  sweeping  and  dusting  are  to  blame 
for  the  spread  of  much  disease.  Wet  paper  or  sawdust 
should  be  used  for  sweeping  the  schoolroom  when  nothing 
better  is  to  be  obtained,  and  the  dusting  should  be  done 
with  a  damp  cloth. 

Individual  pencils.  Pencils  should  not  be  used  inter- 
changeably. Each  should  be  marked  with  the  child's  name. 
They  may  be  stuck  upright  through  holes  that  have  been 
punched  in  a  cardboard  box,  or  they  may  be  thrust  through 
an  elastic  that  has  been  passed  in  and  out  through  slits 
cut  in  a  sheet  of  pasteboard,  each  place  being  marked. 
They  should  be  arranged  in  the  order  in  which  the  chil- 
dren sit,  as  an  aid  to  distribution. 

Lice  and  itch.  Few  teachers  will  be  fortunate  enough 
to  go  through  many  years  without  some  experience  with 
lice  and  itch.  These  are  rather  delicate  matters,  but  they 
have  to  be  encountered,  and  "  forewarned  is  forearmed," 
The  child  whose  hair  is  infected  should  be  sent  home 
with  a  note  telling  what  remedies  to  try.  A  hair  bath  in 
kerosene  is  most  effective.  Alcohol  will  serve.  Quassia, 
steeped,  furnishes  a  safe  and  clean  remedy.  Vaseline,  well 
rubbed  in  and  allowed  to  stay  twenty-four  hours,  will  do 

[78] 


THE  PHYSICAL  COMFORT  OF  THE  CHILD 

the  work.  These  may  not  be  effective  with  one  appUca- 
tion.  They  sometimes  have  to  be  employed  two  or  three 
times  with  twenty-four  hours  between.  This  is  in  order  to 
kill  the  eggs,  or  nits.  The  nits  themselves  may  be  re- 
moved by  combing  with  a  fine-toothed  comb  which  has 
been  dipped  in  vinegar  or  alcohol.  If  sending  home  does 
not  accomplish  the  purpose,  as  will  be  true  in  some  locali- 
ties, the  teacher  may  roll  up  her  sleeves  and,  detaining  the 
child  after  the  rest,  apply  the  kerosene,  alcohol,  or  quassia, 
herself. 

Sulphur  mixed  with  lard  or  vaseline,  well  rubbed  in,  for 
three  or  four  applications,  once  each  day,  will  probably  stop 
the  itch  if  it  is  not  too  advanced.  It  manifests  itself  usually 
in  an  eruption  that  looks  like  water  blisters,  or  in  some 
stages,  like  chapped  hands.  It  appears  between  the  fingers, 
in  the  armpits,  at  the  bend  of  wrists  and  elbows,  along  the 
spine.  It  is  accompanied  by  intense  itching.  A  teacher  is 
herself  continuously  exposed  to  it,  as  in  many  localities 
it  is  not  infrequent.  The  public  common  towel  is  a  most 
fruitful  source  of  contagion.  The  paper  towels  are  excellent 
for  schools  and  cost  very  little.  If  the  teacher  washes  her 
hands  habitually,  or  at  the  completion  of  her  school  duties, 
with  sulphur  soap,  she  is  usually  safe,  personally.  All 
books  used  by  children  found  with  this  trouble  should  be 
laid  aside  till  they  can  be  fumigated. 

Small  ailments.  Sulpho-napthol,  creolin,  and  peroxide 
of  hydrogen  will  help  in  keeping  small  wounds  from  being 
troublesome.  Teachers  should  be  like  mothers  regarding 
such  comfort  destroyers  as  splinters  and  little  wounds.  For 
removal  of  a  splinter  a  needle  should  be  heated  red-hot 
and  then  cooled,  or  at  any  rate  it  should  be  wiped  clean 

[79] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

before  using.  Wiping  the  needle  does  not  disinfect  it^  of 
course,  but  it  may  do  a  little  toward  reducing  the  deadly 
effects  that  might  result,  and  sometimes  neither  boiling 
water  nor  means  for  heating  the  needle  may  be  at  hand. 
The  wounds  should  be  washed  in  one  of  the  antiseptics 
named,  before  bandaging.  Any  slight  wound  may  be 
washed  clean  with  clear  warm  water  into  which  has  been 
poured  a  little  creolin  or  sulpho-napthol,  and  then  wrapped 
with  a  clean,  soft  bandage,  after  which  little  trouble  need 
be  feared.  Sometimes  it  may  be  covered  with  cotton  and 
then  a  light  coating  of  collodion  put  over  it.  It  is  not  well, 
usually,  to  apply  the  collodion  directly.  Peroxide  is  good 
for  a  scratch  or  cut  in  which  pus  is  forming.  Peppermint 
is  excellent  for  toothache  or  may  be  administered  upon 
loaf  sugar  for  a  pain  in  the  stomach.  Camphor  may  be 
inhaled  when  one  is  faint. 

Nosebleed  is  of  frequent  occurrence.  The  circulation 
should  be  cooled  by  applying  ice  or  cold  water  to  the  back 
of  the  neck  and  bridge  of  the  nose.  Sopping  the  nostrils 
washes  away  the  clot  as  soon  as  formed,  so  a  dry  handker- 
chief should  be  held  tightly  to  the  nose.  A  bit  of  paper  put 
between  the  upper  lip  and  the  gum  will  often  help  to  stop 
the  flow.  If  the  bleeding  is  long  continued,  a  plug  of  cotton 
should  be  inserted  into  the  nostril,  but  a  bit  of  strong  thread 
should  be  attached,  that  the  plug  may  be  easily  removed. 
The  head  should  not  be  bent  over  a  basin  during  the  bleed- 
ing, nor  over  a  desk  directly  after  the  bleeding  stops. 

It  is  not  usually  wise  for  a  teacher  to  dose  a  child  much 
internally,  for  fear  of  mismanagement  and  of  dissatisfaction 
at  home,  but  it  is  well  to  keep  a  small  bottle  of  aromatic 
spirits  of  ammonia  and  give  a  half  teaspoonful  in  a  little 

[80] 


THE  PHYSICAL  COMFORT  OF  THE  CHILD 

water  to  a  fainting  child.  Once  in  a  while  it  is  necessary 
to  repeat  after  thirty  or  forty  minutes.  In  cases  where 
children  have  a  long  distance  to  come  to  school,  something 
has  sometimes  to  be  done  immediately  by  the  teacher,  and 
the  proposed  remedies  are  perfectly  safe. 

Contagious  diseases.  If  a  child  appears  to  the  teacher  to 
have  a  contagious  disease,  he  should  be  sent  home.  A  note 
should  go  with  him,  telling  what  the  teacher  thinks  may  be 
the  matter  and  asking  that  he  be  kept  at  home  till  it  is  sure 
that  he  is  all  right.  Courteously  worded,  this  ought  to  pro- 
duce no  trouble.  The  teacher  should  not  wait  till  night, 
or  even  a  few  hours,  to  make  sure ;  she  should  not  let 
consideration  for  the  parent,  or  things  of  that  sort,  deter 
her.  She  is  the  guardian  of  the  health  of  all  the  school, 
and  consideration  for  all  must  outweigh  consideration  for 
one.  The  law  gives  her  the  right  to  send  them  home  on 
the  merest  suspicion  and  to  refuse  to  receive  them  back 
till  satisfied  of  the  safety  of  so  doing. 

If  a  contagious  disease  really  breaks  out  in  her  school, 
a  teacher  should  not  go  into  a  panic  or  in  any  way  show 
fear.  She  must  keep  her  head,  no  matter  how  she  feels, 
and  show  herself  worthy  of  her  office.  She  must  notify  her 
superintendent  at  once.  If  she  fails  to  reach  him,  she 
should  turn  to  the  board  of  health.  She  must  not  only  see 
that  those  exposed  to  the  disorder  remain  away  from  school 
but  she  must  keep  careful  watch  over  the  others  to  detect 
further  trouble.  She  must  reassure  parents  and  children 
and  give  no  exaggerated  accounts.  She  must  see  that  the 
books  and  pencils  of  the  infected  child  are  looked  after  till 
they  are  properly  disinfected  or  destroyed.  If  a  fumigation 
is  decided  upon,  —  and  the  teacher  should  urge  it  rather 

[81] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

than  frown  upon  it,  —  she  should  stand  books  upon  end 
partially  opened,  open  drawers  and  boxes,  and  do  any  other 
necessary  preparation.  It  is  very  improbable  that  she  will, 
herself,  take  the  disease  by  so  doing,  and  even  if  she  does, 
it  is  only  one  of  the  risks  that  she  assumes  when  agreeing 
to  teach. 

Instruction  in  hygiene.  Care  for  the  physical  comfort 
of  the  school  may  well  include  direct  instruction  regard- 
ing health.  Physiology  and  hygiene  claim  their  share  in 
the  program,  but  hygiene  is  what  is  most  needed,  physi- 
ology enough  being  given  to  make  one  appreciate  the 
hygiene  part.  Little  health  talks  may  be  taken  in  connec- 
tion with  the  opening  exercises,  in  the  nature-study  periods, 
or  wherever  they  fit  in. 

The  children  should  be  awakened  to  their  need  of  fresh 
air  and  to  the  habit  of  obtaining  it  out  of  doors,  in  their 
sleeping  rooms,  and  throughout  the  houses.  The  need  of 
airing  clothes  should  be  impressed.  They  should  be  taught 
the  value  of  air  in  producing  health,  and  that  cold  air  and 
fresh  air  are  not  identical.  Many  suggestions  may  be 
made  in  a  general  way  as  to  kind  of  food,  ways  of  cook- 
ing it,  and  the  dangers  of  too  much  candy,  of  breakfasts  that 
are  only  doughnuts  and  coffee,  of  eating  at  irregular  inter- 
vals. The  need  of  going  to  bed  early  and  in  the  proper 
place,  instead  of  lying  down  anywhere  and  being  put  to  bed 
later  on,  should  be  suggested.  The  value  of  exercise,  and 
the  fact  that  both  work  and  play  may  furnish  it  and  that 
it  should  be  accompanied  by  a  light  heart,  should  be  spoken 
of.  The  later  textbooks  treat  nearly  all  topics  in  a  practical 
way,  with  direct  application  to  the  needs  of  the  child,  and 
they  may  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  teacher.    It  is  well  to 

[82] 


THE  PHYSICAL  COMFORT  OF  THE  CHILD 

impress  upon  the  child  that  all  these  things,  including 
care  of  hair,  teeth,  nails,  and  all  parts  of  the  body,  make 
a  great  difference  in  our  standing  in  the  world. 

Smoking  and  other  bad  habits.  Temperance,  not  only 
with  reference  to  alcohol  but  to  all  things,  should  form 
a  part  of  the  instruction.  Smoking  should  be  well  ex- 
pounded. The  child  should  see  moral  and  physical  results. 
He  should  realize  that  at  the  start  it  produces  a  feeling  of 
shame,  then  an  attempt  to  conceal  which  frequently  brings 
a  lie.  The  effect  of  the  tobacco  finally  brings  about  a  de- 
terioration, and  the  child  does  not  become  the  man  he 
ought.  Emphasis  should  be  laid  upon  its  effects  on  grow- 
ing boys  as  wholly  bad;  this  is, a  matter  beyond  dispute, 
even  if  its  effects  upon  the  man  be  set  aside.  That  is  not 
what  immediately  concerns  the  child. 

Worse  than  smoking  and  use  of  alcohol,  so  far  as  the 
children  are  concerned,  are  certain  physical  habits  of  abuse, 
which  the  teacher  should  watch  for  and  fight'  with  all  the 
power  and  tact  that  in  her  lie.  Children  should  be  taught 
generally  that  their  bodies  are  sacred  and  that  no  part 
should  be  abused.  Little  children  fall  into  many  bad  ways 
and  hand  them  on  to  younger  children.  Before  they  are 
old  enough  to  realize,  ruinous  habits  are  established.  It  is 
a  matter  for  careful  approach,  but  instruction  as  needed 
should  be  given. 

Worry  and  overwork.  Children  often  really  worry  over 
school  work.  They  should  be  kept  from  this  as  much  as 
possible.  As  has  been  said,  too  much  home  study  should 
not  be  assigned  to  young  children.  They  will  be  far  better 
physically,  more  ready  to  work  in  school,  if  their  out-of- 
school  hours  are  mainly  free.    If  home  work  is  assigned  to 

[«3l 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

the  larger  children,  it  should  be  reading,  spelling,  nature 
observation,  or  something  not  calling  for  the  application 
and  thought  that  arithmetic  and  grammar  demand. 

Physical  exercises.  Something  may  be  attained  for  the 
present  comfort  of  the  child  and  for  his  future  health, 
through  the  physical  exercises  of  the  school.  These  exer- 
cises serve  the  purpose  of  rest  mainly,  and  they  should  be 
taken  at  any  time  when  the  appearance  of  the  children 
indicates  lassitude  or  nervous  strain.  They  may  be  very 
simple,  just  the  exercises  that  call  for  the  stretching  and 
relaxing  of  various  muscles.  For  formal  work  one  may 
make  use  of  such  exercises  as  are  suggested  in  Bancroft's 
"  School  Freehand  Gymnastics,"  but  the  teacher  should 
never  attempt  such  elaborate  ones  that  she  feels  called 
upon  to  read  the  commands  to  the  school  directly  from 
the  book.  In  rural  schools  and  with  little  children  less 
formal  exercises  are  surely  much  better.  They  may  some- 
times take  the  form  of  games.  Playing  a  gymnastic 
story,  like  those  suggested  in  "  Gymnastic  Stories  and 
Plays,"  always  arouses  interest.  In  these,  for  example, 
the  children  play  they  are  trees  in  a  storm  and  go  through 
all  the  motions  required  for  the  blowing  of  the  wind 
(breathing),  the  shaking  of  leaves  (fingers)  and  limbs 
(arms),  and  the  bending  of  the  trunk.  A  teacher  who 
does  not  have  the  book  can  easily  imagine  other  exercises 
springing  out  of  this  idea.  Sometimes  sufficient  exercise 
for  the  time  may  be  furnished  by  playing  jack-in-the-box, 
by  playing  row  or  pump,  by  standing  up  and  stretching 
and  yawning,  by  running  around  the  room.  The  exercises 
should  come  often  to  be  of  value  and,  coming  often,  need 
continue  only  for   a   minute.    The   introduction    of   the 

[84] 


THE  PHYSICAL  COMFORT  OF  THE  CHILD 

folk  dances  in  schools  where  it  is  practicable  is  a  forward 
movement,  as  these  furnish  exercise  for  all  parts  of  the 
body  and  are  productive  of  grace  and  freedom  from  self- 
consciousness,  while  they  bring  keen  enjoyment  to  the 
children.  In  nearly  all  schools  adaptations  of  these  dances 
may  be  used.  Educational  papers  suggest  much  helpful 
work,  with  the  rhythmic  idea  emphasized.  In  all  schools 
free  calisthenics  should  be  given  at  regular  times,  once 
or  twice  a  day. 

Breathing  exercises.  Accompanying  exercises  already 
suggested,  must  go  some  that  strengthen  and  train  the 
voice.  Breathing  exercises  and  speaking  the  various  vowel 
and  consonant  sounds  at  various  pitches  and  with  different 
force  and  rate  will  help  in  producing  flexibility  of  the  vocal 
organs,  in  breaking  up  bad  habits  of  breathing  and  speak- 
ing, and  in  many  such  ways.  Ives's  "'  Illustrated  Phonics  " 
gives  many  helpful  ideas  in  this  connection. 

Sense  training  an  indirect  aid.  One  may  suffer  physical 
discomfort  through  defective  sense  organs,  as  when  one 
experiences  headaches  and  nervousness  because  of  eye 
strain.  Lack  of  knowledge  and  loss  of  pleasure  may  come 
also  through  lack  of  training  of  the  senses,  so  sense  train- 
ing may  be  touched  upon  in  connection  with  physical 
development.  Failure  to  secure  proper  sense  impressions 
may  arise  often  through  the  mind's  failure  to  notice  and 
interpret  properly  what  the  sense  organs  report,  so  drill  in 
sense  training  should  occur  frequently  in  school.  Exercises 
which  help  in  quickening  all  the  senses  are  easily  found. 
To  train  the  ear,  exercises  may  be  given  in  judging  by 
hearing  alone  what  objects  were  touched,  whether  the  chil- 
dren walked,  ran,  hopped,  or  jumped,  who  spoke,  who  sang, 

[85] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

where  they  were  when  they  sang,  what  notes  were  sung. 
Recognizing  objects  or  people  by  feeling,  finding  one's  way 
to  the  seat  by  the  sense  of  touch,  and  other  exercises  of  this 
kind  are  good  for  the  touch  sense.  Telling  by  smell  vari- 
ous flowers,  fruits,  perfumes,  spices  ;  recognizing  numerous 
objects  by  taste ;  looking  at  a  collection  of  objects  for  an 
instant  and  naming  as  many  as  possible;  telling  what 
colors  were  changed,  what  children  changed  position,  and 
like  exercises  may  be  used  to  the  delight  and  instruction 
of  the  school. 

The  child's  physical  well-being  is  certainly  of  as  great 
importance  as  his  mental  development,  but  it  is  interesting 
to  observe  that  usually  the  two  things  go  hand  in  hand. 


REFERENCES 

Allen.    Civics  and  Health.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Bancroft.  Games  for  Playground,  Home,  School,  and  Gymnasium. 

The  Macmillan  Company. 
Bancroft.    School  Freehand  Gymnastics.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
BuRCHENAL.    Folk  Dances  and  Singing  Games.    G.  Schirmer. 
Cary.  Plays  and  Games  for  Schools.   Democrat  Printing  Company. 
Crawford.    Dramatic  Games  and  Dances  for  Little  Children.  The 

A.  S.  Barnes  Company. 
Crampton.    The  Folk  Dance  Book.    The  A.  S.  Barnes  Company. 
Curtis.    Play  and  Recreation  for  the  Open  Country.    Ginn  and 

Company. 
HoFER.    Popular  Folk  Games  and  Dances.    A.  Flanagan  Company. 
Ives.    Illustrated  Phonics.    Longmans,  Green,  &  Co. 
Johnson.    Education  by  Plays  and  Games.    Ginn  and  Company. 
Kastman  and  Kohler.  Swedish  Song  Games.  Ginn  and  Company. 
MONTESSORI.      The    Montessori    Method.    Frederick    A.    Stokes 

Company. 

[86] 


THE  PHYSICAL  COMFORT  OF  THE  CHILD 

Newton.  Graded  Games  and  Rhythmic  Exercises.  The  A.  S.  Barnes 

Company,  New  York. 
Stoneroad.    Gymnastic  Stories  and  Plays.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co., 

Boston. 
Fiber  Toweling,  I  n  large  rolls.  A.  P.W.  Paper  Company,  Albany,  N .  Y. 
Fiber  Towels.    Holden  Book  Cover  Company,  Springfield,  Mass. 
Tissue  Towels.   J.  L.  Hammett  Company,  Boston. 


[87] 


CHAPTER  VIII 
MORNING  EXERCISES 

Many  things  may  be  included  under  the  head  of  Morn- 
ing Exercises.  They  furnish  a  place  for  a  large  amount 
of  general  work  that  cannot  be  put  elsewhere.  In  such 
schools  as  give  the  child  long  periods  of  work  between 
his  recitations,  suggestions  may  be  made  during  these 
exercises  that  may  be  carried  out  independently  by  him. 
Because  of  the  elasticity  regarding  the  subjects  taken,  and 
because  here  the  teacher  works  with  her  whole  school,  it 
is  well  to  make  the  opening-exercise  period  rather  longer 
than  is  usually  allowed.  Instead  of  three  or  five  minutes, 
fifteen  or  twenty  should  be  planned ;  but  since  this  is  a 
good  working  time,  care  should  be  taken  that  it  is  not 
wasted.  This  time  properly  used  may  serve  as  an  impetus 
and  inspiration  for  the  whole  day. 

Subjects :  Scripture.  The  work  should  include  devo- 
tional exercises  proper.  These  have  been  referred  to  else- 
where. There  should  always  be  included  a  hymn,  a  Bible 
selection,  and  the  Lord's  Prayer,  unless,  as  has  been  pre- 
viously said,  the  school  use  of  Scripture  is  forbidden.  The 
Bible  selection  should  be  a  psalm  or  other  suitable  Scrip- 
ture which  the  children  have  learned  and  repeat  with  the 
teacher.  The  choice  should  be  made  with  care,  since  not 
all  parts  of  the  Bible  are  well  suited  to  school  repetition. 
As  soon  as  one  selection  has  been  learned  a  new  one 

[88] 


MORNING  EXERCISES 

should  be  begun,  and  all  known  ones  should  be  repeated 
in  alternation  with  each  other.  The  teaching  of  the  new 
may  occupy  a  short  part  of  each  opening-exercise  period. 
Unless  discussion  of  the  Bible  is  not  allowable  or  desirable, 
the  selections  should  be  talked  over  with  a  view  to  getting 
the  right  understanding  and  feeling,  though  nothing  de- 
nominational should  be  introduced.  If  this  method  of  re- 
viewing the  old  and  adding  new  should  be  kept  up,  the 
children  at  the  end  of  a  common-school  course  would  have 
quite  a  fund  of  most  helpful  Scripture  assimilated  and 
made  dear. 

Hymns.  The  hymns  should  be  those  suited  to  children, 
and  may  include  some  of  our  standard  hymns  together 
with  certain  ones  that  are  particularly  fitted  to  the  under- 
standing and  needs  of  young  children.  The  teaching  of 
new  hymns  may  form  a  part  of  the  morning-exercise  work, 
or  it  may  be  done  in  the  music  periods. 

Devotional  poems.  It  is  well  to  add  to  the  regular  de- 
votional exercises  what  we  might  call  a  devotional  poem, 
which  may  be  said  over  and  over  again.  Two  or  three  of 
such  poems  may  alternate  with  each  other  through  a  year, 
or  one  alone  might  serve.  For  this  one  needs  such  poems 
as  "'  Consider,"  "A  Child's  Thought  of  God,"  "  Whichever 
Way  the  Wind  Doth  Blow,"  or  any  like  selection  contain- 
ing a  distinct  direction  of  thought  toward  the  love  of  God 
and  his  care  for  us  or  toward  our  duties. 

Other  features.  The  features  mentioned  may  occur 
morning  after  morning.  In  addition  there  may  be  given 
whatever  the  needs  of  the  day  demand.  Teaching  of  new 
songs,  poems,  or  psalms  ;  singing  old  songs  or  saying  old 
poems  ;  talking  of  the  various  phases  of  nature  that  bring 

[89] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

themselves  to  the  notice  of  the  child  ;  current  events  ;  dis- 
cussion of  some  particular  man  or  thing  that  has  been 
assigned  to  find  out  about ;  talks  meant  for  ethical  training ; 
salutes  to  the  flag,  or  other  patriotic  work — all  these  form 
a  legitimate  part  of  the  morning  exercises.  The  teacher 
and  children  get  acquainted  at  this  time.  Interesting  open- 
ing exercises  decrease  tardiness.  The  keynote  for  the 
day  may  be  struck  here,  and  the  time  is  an  exceedingly 
important  one. 

Current  events.  Skill  is  necessary  in  the  discussion  of 
current  events.  The  children  need  to  be  trained  to  real 
discrimination  as  to  what  is  worth  noticing  in  the  world's 
happenings.  They  may  be  guided  from  their  natural  choice 
of  murders  and  all  unholy  terrors  that  appeal  to  the  imagi- 
nation toward  the  choice  of  events  which  mark  the  march 
of  the  world  in  art,  science,  morals  —  all  worth-while  topics. 
It  is  interesting  to  watch  their  growth  in  these  lines.  A 
teacher  should  hesitate  to  direct  the  attention  of  children 
to  the  daily  newspapers,  which  are  most  pernicious  in 
their  influence  upon  unformed  minds.  The  current  events 
should  be  gathered  from  magazines  like  the  Outlook,  the 
World's  Work,  or  the  Review  of  Reviews.  A  little  paper 
called  Current  Events  is  in  use  in  many  schools  and 
serves  admirably. 

*  Ethical  Training 

Moral  training,  since  it  may  be  reached  directly  in 
connection  with  the  morning  exercises,  is  treated  in  this 
chapter ;  but  since  it  is  of  so  great  importance  and  needs 
large  attention  at  other  times,  it  may  well  have  separate 
consideration. 

[90] 


MORNING  EXERCISES 

Indirect  instruction.  Ethical  instruction  is  of  two  kinds, 
direct  and  indirect.  The  indirect  instruction  must  go  on 
all  the  time.  Whenever  occasion  serves,  a  blow  should  be 
struck  for  decency  and  uprightness.  Opportunities  will 
come  in  connection  with  all  subjects,  and  no  single  chance 
to  uplift  should  be  neglected.  Occasions  may  be  made  as 
if  incidentally  ;  a  bit  of  biography  or  a  daily  happening  may 
be  introduced  and  so  do  its  service.  Effort  must  be  made 
in  connection  with  all  school  subjects  to  develop  ideas  of 
accuracy,  industry,  honesty,  and  the  like,  into  ideals  and 
to  help  these  ideals  to  grow  into  habits. 

Careful  supervision.  Watchfulness  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  may  prevent  undesirable  habits.  Occasions  for 
dishonesty,  untruthfulness,  and  the  like,  may  be  removed. 
Too  great  temptations  should  not  be  permitted  while  the 
character  is  still  unformed.  Fear  is  at  the  bottom  of  many 
lies.  Too  strong  incentives  to  ambition  may  produce  cheat- 
ing, and  attractive  trifles  left  in  a  child's  way  are  a  direct 
temptation  to  theft.  Oversight  of  the  wastebasket,  sup- 
pression of  note  writing,  supervision  of  children  at  noon 
and  recess,  opening  of  lines  of  thought  and  interest  in 
all  sorts  of  legitimate  ways,  may  save  many  a  child  from 
future  sin  and  the  consequences  thereof.  When  to  all  this 
is  added  the  good  example  of  the  teacher,  much  more  may 
be  accomplished. 

Direct  instruction.  Besides  these  things,  direct  instruc- 
tion is  greatly  needed.  The  work  should  not  be  left  to 
suggestion  or  chance.  To  drill  day  after  day  on  arithmetic 
and  leave  our  moral  education  to  a  chance  hit  here  and 
there  is  poor  judgment.  Children  need  direct  and  forceful 
teaching  regarding  politeness,  cleanliness,  purity  in  speech 

[91] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

and  thought  and  deed,  work,  punctuality,  kindness,  honesty, 
truthfulness,  temperance,  and  kindred  subjects.  Such  in- 
struction may  be  given  in  connection  with  opening  exer- 
cises or  at  some  special  time  set  apart  for  the  purpose, 
but  somewhere  it  certainly  should  be  given. 

There  has  been  a  prevalent  notion  that  children  must 
never  be  preached  to,  and  that  all  that  is  necessary  is  a 
careful  watching  of  habits.  Along  with  this  has  gone  a 
serene  trust  that  all  would  be  well  in  the  future,  which 
has  somehow  produced  a  slipping  of  responsibility  greater 
than  has  occurred  in  any  other  place  in  child  training.  In- 
deed, the  habits  themselves  have  been  comparatively  little 
watched.  Teachers  and  mothers  have  been  almost  crimi- 
nally careless  in  regard  to  this,  too  prone  to  pass  in  silence 
conditions  they  know  to  be  wrong. 

Character  is  dependent  upon  both  habits  and  ideals,  and 
knowledge  should  stand  as  the  foundation  of  both.  Before 
a  child's  habits  are  so  fixed  that  they  become  difficult  of 
change  he  should  have  instruction  so  that  he  may  know 
what  he  ought  and  ought  not  to  do.  He  should  also  be 
given  direct  teaching,  in  order  that  he  may  have  a  proper 
ideal,  not  that  furnished  him  by  some  slightly  older  child. 

A  third-grade  pupil  from  an  excellent  family,  who 
stated  in  an  ethical  talk  that  children  should  not  do  certain 
disorderly  things  while  the  teacher  was  out  of  the  room, 
gave  as  his  only  reason  that  the  teacher  might  come  in 
and  catch  them.  Another,  who  said  it  was  wrong  to  copy 
his  neighbor's  paper,  saw  no  cause  for  refraining  except 
the  fact  that  the  paper  might  not  be  right.  These  cases 
show  the  difficulties  under  which  teachers  must  work  to  train 
children  to  become  citizens  having  worthy  moral  standards. 

[92] 


MORNING  EXERCISES 

The  conditions  are  not  different,  nor  is  the  task  harder 
than  in  other  Hnes  of  our  work,  though  the  accomphshing 
of  our  aims  is  more  essential.  Why  should  we  expect  to 
have  to  teach  the  children  reading,  language,  music,  and 
work  in  every  other  line,  and  expect  them  to  be  born  with 
a  well-developed  moral  nature. 

There  are  many  ways  of  conducting  the  lesson.  A  good 
way  is  to  select  a  topic  and  work  upon  it  for  several  days, 
it  being  made  the  theme  or  guide  for  conduct.  Children 
will  be  interested  in  finding  out  why  the  habits  are  neces- 
sary ;  what,  for  example,  are  the  advantages  of  punctuality, 
of  politeness,  or  of  work.  They  may  give  their  opinions 
as  to  how  honest  or  truthful  one  needs  to  be.  Stories 
may  be  told  of  imaginary  happenings  and  the  children  be 
urged  to  argue  on  the  side  they  really  believe  to  be  right. 
Behavior  on  the  streets  or  in  public  places  forms  an  excel- 
lent topic.  Children  are  often  little  savages  because  they 
do  not  think  about  it,  not  because  they  want  to  attract 
attention  or  be  bad. 

The  topics  regarding  cleanliness,  and  purity  of  speech, 
thought,  and  action,  need  careful  handling,  but  they  open 
a  field  for  work  that  will  yield  to  none  in  its  need  and,  if 
properly  approached,  in  its  results.  In  no  line  do  children 
need  training  more.  The  next  decade  will  witness  a  marked 
change  and  progress  toward  freedom  of  discussion  and 
careful  teaching  in  lines  now  wholly  overlooked  or  touched 
upon  gingerly  or  with  apprehension.  With  little  children 
the  teaching  is  easy,  with  older  ones  it  may  have  to  be 
given  as  private  instruction  or  to  girls  and  boys  in  sepa- 
rate classes.  There  is,  of  course,  great  opposition  to  such 
teaching  in  some  quarters,  but  the  trend  of  opinion  is  very 

[93] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Strongly  in  favor  of  such  work.  To  the  argument  that 
unskilled  teachers  cannot  handle  it,  the  reply  seems  to  be 
that  that  has  never  been  a  reason  for  omitting  the  teach- 
ing of  any  other  needed  subject.  The  teachers  should  not 
remain  untrained  and  unfit.  They  should  learn  in  our 
normal  schools,  and  in  training  classes  in  colleges,  and 
even  in  high  schools,  how  to  teach  a  subject  that  is  begin- 
ning to  be  so  clamorously  insisted  upon  as  necessary. 

Every  school  should  have  its  time  for  giving  direct 
moral  lessons.  The  seed  may  be  sown  during  this  lesson 
time,  and  then  the  teacher  should  see  that  proper  soil  for 
its  growth  is  furnished  throughout  the  school  day.  No 
child  should  be  able  to  say  with  truth,  as  an  excuse  for 
any  bad  habit,  that  he  did  not  know  it  was  wrong,  and 
^o  teacher  should,  through  neglect  in  giving  such  lessons, 
put  herself  in  a  place  where  she  must  feel  herself  really 
responsible  for  the  wrongdoing  of  a  child  who  has  been 
under  her  charge. 

REFERENCES 

Brownlee.  System  of  Child  Training.  H  olden  Company,  Spring- 
field, Mass. 

Browxlee.  Character  Building  in  Schools.  Houghton  Mifflin 
Company. 

Current  Events.  A  weekly  paper.  Special  rates  for  schools.  Spring- 
field (Mass.)  or  Chicago. 

Moral  Training  in  the  Public  Schools.    Ginn  and  Company. 


[94] 


CHAPTER  IX 

ARITHMETIC 

Importance.  This  subject  has  been  overemphasized  in 
the  schools  for  many  years.  It  is  a  valuable  subject  prac- 
tically, yet  its  practical  need  has  been  greatly  overesti- 
mated. For  use  in  life,  there  is  needed  a  quick  and  active 
power  to  employ  the  four  fundamental  processes  with 
whole  numbers  and  with  decimal  and  common  fractions 
including  mixed  numbers,  the  simpler  work  in  mensura- 
tion and  denominate  numbers,  percentage  with  its  commoji 
applications  taken  in  a  practical  and  simple  way.  Such 
arithmetical  work  as  is  given  because  of  its  use  in. algebra 
or  physics  should  be  saved  to  be  taught  in  connection 
with  those  subjects,  and  common-school  work  should  be 
confined  wholly  to  the  things  directly  used  in  the  life  of 
an  ordinary  person.  Arithmetic  is  of  great  use  as  a  means 
of  training,  but  the  training  can  be  given  in  connection 
with  the  work  that  is  really  needed  as  well  as  with  the 
more  difficult  and  unnecessary.  Moreover,  other  subjects 
which  are  as  interesting  and  valuable  will  furnish  equally 
good  training.  Arithmetic  should  not  receive  from  the 
pupils  more  time  daily  than  that  allowed  to  geography, 
history,  language,  or  most  other  subjects. 

Much  oral  and  practical  work  should  be  taken,  with 
analysis  given  simply  and  in  the  child's  own  words  so  long 
as  they  express  the  idea  correctly.  Modern  arithmetics  deal 

[95] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

much  with  mental  work,  and  though  the  child  of  to-day  is 
unskilled  in  arithmetical  gymnastics,  he  can  perform  many 
hard  problems  easily,  without  the  use  of  pencil  and  paper. 
Makers  of  books  are  slowly  cutting  out  the  absurd  and  sub- 
stituting really  practical  work,  yet  the  teacher  has  still  to 
winnow  considerably  from  what  is  left. 

Character  of  first-grade  arithmetic.  Little,  if  any,  abstract 
arithmetic  should  be  given  in  the  first  year.  The  children 
at  this  age  are  fond  of  counting,  and  a  great  deal  of  it  may 
be  taken,  counting  by  ones,  twos,  fives,  and  tens.  The 
counting  should  be  done  with  objects,  and  many  games 
and  devices  may  be  employed  —  such  as  counting  the 
objects  in  the  room,  the  desks,  chairs,  pupils  present  and 
absent,  blocks,  sticks,  pegs,  or  balls.  The  children  may 
-play  games  that  call  for  counting,  like  the  one  named 
"  chickens,"  in  which  the  teacher  scatters  corn  or  small 
objects  on  a  table  and  the  children  get  all  they  can,  count- 
ing afterwards  to  see  how  they  stand. 

Other  first-grade  work  which  leads  to  a  knowledge  of 
number  may  consist  of  observation  and  experiment  with 
measuring  things  and  comparing  them  —  lines,  surfaces, 
solids,  pints,  quarts,  pecks,  bushels,  ounces,  pounds.  The 
children  may  estimate,  then  verify,  in  this  way  obtaining 
a  concrete  knowledge  of  small  numbers.  This  should 
never  be  made  abstract  in  the  first  year.  The  play  idea 
may  prevail  in  this  work.  Guessing  the  dimensions  of 
objects  in  the  room  and  then  measuring  them,  drawing 
pictures  of  them,  finding  them  by  description,  naming 
them  through  the  sense  of  feeling,  building,  —  as  making 
a  seven-inch  measure  or  an  eight-inch  solid  in  as  many 
ways  as  possible, — telling  what  will  be  left  if  one  measure 

[96] 


ARITHMETIC 

be  taken  from  another,  recognizing  and  comparing  dry 
and  liquid  measures,  with  many  Hke  exercises,  furnish 
pleasure  for  the  child  and  leave  hihi  at  the  end  of  the 
year  with  a  perceptive  knowledge  that  makes  the  regular 
number  work  of  the  second  year  pleasant  and  easy. 

In  addition  to  this  he  may  do  considerable  work  in  the 
way  of  arranging  pegs,  or  the  little  kindergarten  tablets 
called  lentils,  or  splints  upon  his  desk  in  response  to  written 
or  spoken  dictation.  The  objects  representing  the  answer 
may  be  included  in  the  lesson  after  the  arranging  becomes 
easy,  the  answer  being  determined  by  counting,  but  no 
attempt  should  be  made  to  have  the  work  memorized 
abstractly.  The  object  of  first-year  work,  when  any  is 
taken,  should  always  be  the  acquiring  of  concrete  ideas 
for  later  use. 

Sometimes  present  needs  may  serve  to  create  a  number 
interest  and  to  bring  about  considerable  in  the  way  of  a 
knowledge  of  numbers.  Games,  gardening,  and  construc- 
tion work  of  various  kinds  in  which  the  child  is  interested, 
may  demand  for  their  accomplishment  much  arithmetical 
work.  The  pupil,  eager  to  obtain  certain  results,  picks  up 
many  number  facts  and  finds  learning  of  combinations  easy. 
Often  he  is  unaware  of  what  he  is  really  accomplishing. 
The  teacher  should  always  use  means  like  these  to  aid  in 
the  teaching. 

Later  number  work  for  primary  grades.  The  regular 
number  work  during  the  rest  of  the  early  grades  aims 
particularly  to  make  the  child  familiar  with  the  common 
processes  with  whole  numbers.  Here  he  should  still  feel 
the  play  element,  and  he  should  be  trained  to  see  relations 
and  to  use  his  judgment  as  much  as  possible.    The  first 

[97] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

secret  of  good  work  is  to  have  the  pupil  see  the  thing  con- 
cretely till  he  is  sure  it' is  so,  then  drill  on  it  abstractly  till 
the  process  becomes  mechanical.  If  either  the  concrete 
or  the  abstract  is  omitted,  the  work  is  faulty.  It  is  often 
found  wise  to  give  the  child  concrete  material  —  splints, 
pegs,  or  other  convenient  objects  —  for  use  at  his  desk  in 
working  out  his  exercises  and  then  make  the  greater  part 
of  his  class  work  abstract,  though  this  distribution  of  work 
is  not  essential.  The  main  thing  is  to  see  that  both  are 
given.  It  is  not  wise  to  let  the  child  count  his  fingers  nor 
make  little  marks  for  use  in  working,  as  these  are  so 
ever-present  and  easy  that  the  temptation  is  great  not  to 
dispense  with  them  at  the  proper  time.  High-  and  normal- 
school  students  are  to  be  found  who  still  do  rather  simple 
addition  and  subtraction  by  counting,  with  or  without  use 
of  the  fingers. 

All  later  work  must  depend  upon  a  knowledge  of  the 
number  combinations  to  twenty,  so  these  should  be  taught 
with  the  utmost  care.  The  pupil,  after  a  concrete  presenta- 
tion in  class,  should  do  much  work  by  himself,  with  and 
without  objects,  and  should  also  have  much  class  drill.  In 
class  he  should  be  required  to  show  the  facts  with  objects, 
then  to  pass  gradually  from  the  concrete  work  with  objects 
present  to  the  concrete  with  objects  absent,  and  from  that 
to  the  abstract.  He  sees  that  8  blocks  and  7  blocks  make 
1 5  blocks,  then  he  thinks  8  blocks  and  7  blocks  in  response 
to  some  such  question  as,  "  If  I  give  you  8  blocks  and  you 
take  7  blocks  more,  how  many  will  you  have  .?  "  and  finally 
he  is  expected  to  give  a  quick  response  to  the  question 
"  8  and  7  are  how  many  ? "  When  this  latter  stage  is 
reached  he  should  be  required  to  answer  promptly  and 

[98] 


ARITHMETIC 

without  counting.  The  teacher  should  not  be  satisfied  till 
this  result  is  reached ;  till  all  addition,  subtraction,  multi- 
plication, and  division  are  perfectly  mechanical. 

Multiplication  tables  need  many  drills.  Modem  work 
makes  more  of  the  miscellaneous  drill  with  multiplication 
combinations  and  of  the  relation  to  counting  and  adding 
than  of  the  rote  repetition,  but  there  can  be  no  harm  in 
"  saying  the  tables,"  though,  of  course,  the  work  should 
not  end  here.  The  tables  should  be  presented  through 
counting  —  the  numeral  frame  being  the  best  means  — 
and  through  arrangement  of  objects.  There  are  many 
objects  easily  available  for  desk  work  here,  such  as  pegs 
or  sticks.  The  little  wooden  tablets  called  lentils,  previ- 
ously referred  to,  are  very  good  for  the  purpose,  as  they 
are  so  small  that  a  little  box  will  contain  all  a  pupil  needs. 
Kernels  of  com  may  serve  instead.  Many  teachers  use 
effectively  small  pictures  showing  the  required  number  of 
objects.  If  such  pictures,  exactly  alike,  be  pasted  upon  a 
strip  of  muslin,  the  pupil  may  fold  over  as  many  as  he 
wishes  to  deal  with  and  then  count  for  his  result ;  for 
example,  twelve  little  pictures  about  an  inch  square,  each 
containing  three  apples,  to  be  used  in  learning  the  table 
of  threes.  For  class  work  one  may  use  a  chart  containing 
pictures  of  objects,  or  the  purpose  may  be  served  by  using 
little  circles  drawn  upon  the  board.  These  are  quickly  made, 
do  not  tire  the  eyes  as  do  lines  or  squares  close  together, 
and  may  be  easily  erased  and  drawn  again  as  necessary,  or 
all  but  the  desired  number  of  rows  may  be  covered. 

The  child  should  be  shown  particularly  the  theory  under- 
lying addition  and  subtraction  by  endings,  as,  7  +  4  =  11, 

17 -f4  =  2i,  37  +  4  =  41 ;    13-8  =  5,23-8=15, 

[99] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

33  —  8  =  25.  Splints  —  common  toothpicks  —  furnish 
the  best  means  for  objective  work  here,  as  they  occupy 
Httle  space  and  can  be  easily  arranged  in  bundles  of  ten. 
This  work,  like  the  multiplication  tables,  calls  for  inter- 
minable drill,  but,  like  the  tables  and  the  combinations  to 
twenty,  is  of  great  importance.  Children  should  also  be 
taught  many  little  helps  to  work,  like  the  fact  that  to  add 
9  one  may  add  10  and  subtract  i  or  call  the  tens  one 
greater  and  the  units  one  less.  Children  are  greatly  inter- 
ested in  such  relations  and  can  understand  them  early  if 
their  attention  is  called  to  them,  so  this  is  the  time  to  fix 
many  ways  of  making  things  easier. 

The  processes  with  whole  numbers,  once  introduced, 
should  be  drilled  upon  without  intermission.  Such  drill 
occupies  but  a  short  time  daily  and  prevents  the  subject 
from  needing  to  be  taught  anew  from  time  to  time.  Per- 
fection should  be  aimed  at,  but  not  expected  too  early. 
Much  care  is  needed  to  furnish  such  variety  for  these 
ever-present  drills  that  the  children  find  them  attractive 
and  give  the  attention  needed  to  get  them  well  in  mind. 
Games  should  be  played  at  school  and  recommended  for 
home.  Class  time,  recess,  and  noon  will  furnish  an  oppor- 
tunity. Bean-bag  games,  ringtoss,  dominoes,  parchesi, 
flinch,  backgammon,  are  good  for  improving  the  number 
sense.  Many  class  games  may  be  used.  The  teacher  or  a 
pupil  may  say,  "  I  am  thinking  of  a  multiplication  whose 
answer  is  72."  Another  pupil  asks,  "  Is  it  9  times  8  ?  "  or 
"  Is  it  12  times  6  ?  "  The  teacher  says,  "  I  am  thinking 
of  something  about  11  and  3."  The  pupil  asks,  "  Is  the 
answer  14,  33,  8  .? "  Hull  gull  is  a  good  game.  In  this 
the  child  holds  a  number  of  small  objects  concealed  in  his 

[100] 


ARITHMETIC 

hand.  His  neighbor  guesses  the  number.  If  right,  the 
guesser  gets  the  objects ;  if  wrong,  he  gives  the  other 
player  the  difference  between  his  answer  and  the  correct 
one.  For  class  work  many  devices  should  be  employed. 
It  makes  a  decided  difference  in  the  interest  of  most  chil- 
dren whether  the  lesson  goes  along  without  diversion  or 
change,  or  to  the  accompaniment  of  a  pleasant  and  harm- 
less fiction,  during  which  he  imagines  that  he  is  picking 
grapes,  making  balloon  ascensions,  blowing  soap  bubbles, 
fishing,  or  playing  tag. 

Playing  store.  Playing  store  is  one  of  the  best  of  devices. 
It  may  be  carried  to  almost  any  extent.  Using  liquid,  dry, 
and  linear  measures,  much  buying  and  selling  may  be  done 
in  class.  Care  should  be  taken  to  call  for  mathematical 
skill.  We  may  play  store  without  it,  but  it  is  to  be  remem- 
bered that  our  object  is  to  develop  it.  If  we  buy  four  gal- 
lons of  anything  and  have  it  measured  in  a  quart  or  pint, 
the  child  learns  the  relation  between  the  measures.  If  toy 
money  is  used,  the  gain  from  the  play  is  still  greater.  One 
may  have  the  real  objects  or  their  imitation,  pictures  on 
the  board,  or  even  cards  containing  prices,  and  do  a  brisk 
business.  The  work  is  capable  of  great  expansion  and 
variety.  Children  learn  to  make  change  rapidly.  In  some 
schools  a  permanent  store  has  been  organized  by  means 
of  a  big  box  and  some  shelves,  and  trade  has  gone  on 
steadily  at  recesses  and  between  schools,  imitation  articles 
accumulating  readily. 

Work  above  the  fifth  year.  By  the  end  of  the  fifth 
year  the  children  should  be  letter  perfect  in  all  addition, 
subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division  of  whole  numbers. 
They  should  of  course  know  simple  work  in  denominate 

[lOl] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

numbers  and  mensuration  and  have  some  acquaintance 
with  fractions,  but  skill  in  dealing  with  whole  numbers 
should  be  the  aim  in  the  early  grades.  In  the  sixth  and 
seventh  grades  they  should  continue  drills  with  whole  num- 
bers and  become  equally  proficient  with  common  and  deci- 
mal fractions,  and  the  work  in  denominate  numbers  should 
be  enlarged,  leaving  the  eighth  year  for  percentage  with 
its  applications.  If  there  is  a  ninth  grade,  it  may  be  used 
for  review.  In  schools  in  which  many  children  drop  out 
early,  some  work  in  percentage  needs  to  be  taken  sooner, 
and  in  places  where  only  eight  grades  precede  the  high 
school,  if  the  age  of  entering  is  greater,  the  work  may  be 
taken  more  rapidly  in  the  lower  classes.  No  harm  and 
much  good  results  from  taking  the  fundamental  processes 
with  whole  numbers  more  slowly  than  was  our  former 
custom,  and  the  pruning  of  unnecessary  work  which  used 
to  draw  greatly  upon  the  time  and  energy  of  the  pupils 
has  made  such  a  course  easily  possible. 

The  child  should  be  the  master  of  his  work  in  fractions, 
but  that  given  should  be  confined  to  small  numbers,  such 
as  he  will  usually  have  to  deal  with  out  of  school.  Many 
drills  should  be  given,  and  fundamental  ideas  well  rubbed 
in.  For  example,  he  should  be  made  to  understand  per- 
fectly multiplication  and  division  by  moving  of  decimal 
points,  and  the  effect  of  multiplying  or  dividing  either  or 
both  of  dividend  and  divisor,  and  of  numerator  and  denom- 
inator. He  should  be  taught  easy  ways  of  doing  work  with 
fractions.  Many  children  reduce  mixed  numbers  to  im- 
proper fractions  to  add,  subtract,  or  multiply  them,  using 
hours  of  time  in  this  way.  The  child  should  be  made  to 
see  the  relations  existing  between  the  different  divisions 

[I02] 


ARITHMETIC 

of  his  work  in  arithmetic  and  not  allowed  to  think  that 
every  time  he  takes  a  new  step  he  is  embarking  upon  an 
unknown  sea,  without  chart  or  compass. 

Use  of  class  time.  Much  time  is  wasted  in  class  by  wait- 
ing while  children  work  at  board.  If  there  is  to  be  board 
work,  the  class  work  should  be  divided,  all  of  a  division 
being  given  the  same  work.  After  a  proper  time  all  should 
be  seated  and  give  attention  to  explanations.  It  is  a  bad 
outlay  of  time  to  keep  ten  or  twelve  children  waiting  while 
one  finishes  an  example.  It  is  usually  better  to  spend  class 
time  in  analysis  of  questions  or  development  of  new  work, 
such  board  work  as  is  done  in  class  being  performed  by 
the  teacher  under  the  direction  of  the  class.  The  more 
difficult  work  should  generally  be  taken  up  in  advance, 
but  the  children  should  of  course  have  independent  prac- 
tice in  doing  examples  that  have  not  been  taken.  This 
class  work  gives  the  teacher  an  opportunity  to  drill  on  best 
ways  of  going  about  things,  such  as  finding  the  cost  of  one 
thing  before  that  of  the  given  number  of  things,  or  noticing 
just  what  is  given  and  what  required,  or  getting  reasonable 
answers.  All  such  things  children  need  to  have  called  to 
their  attention  repeatedly,  for  many  of  them  they  would 
never  think  out  for  themselves. 

Need  of  independent  work.  The  child  needs  to  be  trained 
to  independent  thinking,  so  even  in  school  the  teacher 
should  seldom  do  an  example  for  him,  but  should  help  him 
to  see  how  to  do  it  by  questions  or  through  giving  him  a 
simpler  one  to  do  that  involves  the  same  principle.  For 
this  same  reason  arithmetic  is  better  done  at  school,  since 
it  is  usually  the  relatives  of  a  child  who  are  receiving 
arithmetical  training  if  much  work  is  done  at  home. 

[103] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Need  of  good  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.    In 

no  place  in  connection  with  her  school  work  does  a  teacher 
need  to  call  upon  her  common  sense  more  than  in  the 
arithmetic.  The  book  should  be  winnowed  and  such  parts 
as  are  useless  or  unreasonable  omitted.  Puzzles  should  be 
passed  by,  and  emphasis  put  upon  such  work  as  the  teacher 
knows  to  be  valuable,  leaving  out  that  of  doubtful  impor- 
tance. All  new  processes  and  principles  should  be  intro- 
duced by  means  of  small  numbers.  All  rules  should  be 
got  at  by  giving  individual  concrete  illustrations,  then  let- 
ting the  child  draw  the  general  rule  from  this,  stating  it  in 
his  own  words.  This  wording  being  corrected  or  bettered, 
he  may  learn  the  general  truth  so  that  he  can  state  it  easily. 
He  should  then  have  abundant  practice  in  its  application 
to  particular,  reasonable,  miscellaneous  cases. 

A  few  of  many  good  drills  to  arouse  interest  in  class. 
Wheels  of  various  kinds,  often  made  with  colored  crayons, 
around  which  the  children  may  gallop  on  a  pony  or  race 
with  bicycle,  automobile,  or  airship. 

Steps,  ladders,  targets,  railway  tracks,  balloons,  flags, 
soap  bubbles,  fish  ponds,  Christmas  trees,  and  like  devices. 

Work  for  speed  tests,  half  the  class  at  board,  half 
working  on  paper.    Scores  should  be  kept. 

Modifications  of  this  drill : 


9 
X  6 


Columns  for  quick  addition. 
Exercises  like  those  given  below  : 

9  X  ?  =  45 
.?  X  6  =  42 
8x7=? 

[104] 


ARITHMETIC 


8 
6 

4 

7  +  5,  or  -  3,  or  x  4 

9 
8 

5 


9 

9 

9 

9 

9 

9 

9 

9 

9 

I 

2 . 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

4 

4 

4 

4 

I 

2 

3 

4 

3 

3 

3 

I 

0 

3 

2 

2 

I 

2 

Multiplication  table  in  a  square  and  similar  drills,  such 
as  the  magic  squares,  in  which  the  sums  of  the  figures  in 
all  the  rows,  added  to  the  right  or  left,  and  the  sums  of 

[105] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 


the  figures  in  all  the  columns,  added  up  or  down,  will  be 
the  same.  These  are  also  very  good  for  desk  work.  Many 
modifications  of  these  may  be  thought  of. 

Rapid,  written  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  or 
division.    Both  class  and  teacher  work  on  paper,  the  pupil 
getting  answer  stands  as  quickly  as  possible. 
Drills  on  aliquot  parts  are  excellent. 
For  common  fractions  and  decimals  use  the  same  drills 

as  for  whole  numbers. 
For  class  drills  in 
fractions  it  furnishes 
good  work  to  give 
quick  questions  like 
the  following  :  What 
is  the  effect  of  multi- 
plying both  dividend 
and  divisor  by  the 
same  number  ?  of  mul- 
tiplying both  numera- 
tor and  denominator  ? 
of  multiplying  the  nu- 
merator ?  of  multiplying  the  denominator  ?  of  dividing  the 
numerator .?  of  dividing  the  denominator  ?  of  dividing  both 
numerator  and  denominator  by  the  same  number  ?  of  mov- 
ing the  decimal  point  to  the  right  ?  of  moving  the  decimal 
point  to  the  left .-'  of  moving  the  decimal  point  one  place  ?  of 
moving  the  decimal  point  two  places  ?  Tenths  of  tenths 
give  what .?  Tenths  of  hundredths  ?  How  shall  one  decimal 
place  be  read  .?  How  shall  two  decimal  places  be  read  ? 

Oral  dictation  like  the  following  is  valuable :  8,  cipher, 
decimal  point,  cipher  cipher,  7.    What  is  the  number  ? 

[106] 


ARITHMETIC 

The  device  on  the  opposite  page  is  a  help  in  teaching 
the  relation  of  tenths,  hundredths,  and  thousandths. 

A  cut-out  square  which  stands  for  a  single  thing  — a  unit. 

It  is  divided  into  ten  "  strips."    Each  is  a  tenth. 

Each  "strip,"  or  tenth,  is  divided  into  ten  "small 
squares,"  or  hundredths. 

Each  "  small  square  "  is  divided  into  ten  "  slips,"  or 
thousandths. 

This  may  be  used  to  show  relations  concretely,  and  for 
drill  in  writing  decimals  it  is  invaluable. 

A  few  of  many  ways  in  which  the  teacher  may  help 
the  pupil  to  easier  work.  In  long-addition  work  the  pupil 
may  be  allowed  to  put  the  carrying  figure  over  the  proper 
column.  He  should  be  encouraged  to  do  this,  and  no  harm 
is  done  if  he  always  continues  it.  It  is  never  a  hindrance 
and  is  often  a  help  in  proof  or  in  finding  mistakes. 

In  subtraction  when  it  is  necessary  to  take  one  from  a 
higher  denomination,  the  figure  may  be  crossed  out  and 
the  resulting  one  be  written  in  above,  together  with  the 
change  in  the  lower  denomination  resulting  from  the  addi- 
tion of  the  new  ten.  This,  however,  is  only  an  aid  and 
should  be  dispensed  with  as  soon  as  the  process  is  thor- 
oughly understood  and  has  become  mechanical. 

Children  should  be  encouraged  to  add  up  and  down  a 
column,  and  to  both  left  and  right  when  the  work  is  written 
horizontally.  This  gets  them  into  the  habit  of  proving 
their  work. 

Work  like  the  following  furnishes  a  good  exercise  for  the 
children.  "  When  I  add  I  get  a  sum"  "  When  I  subtract 
I  get  a  difference,  or  remainder"  "  When  I  multiply  I  get 
2.  product." 

[107] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

In  oral  work  the  pupil  should  exactly  reverse  his  written 
order  and  add  or  subtract  the  hundreds,  then  the  tens, 
then  the  units.  For  example,  if  he  is  to  add  orally  357 
and  246,  he  says,  557,  597,  603. 

Care  should  be  used  that  both  teacher  and  pupils  always 
write  units  under  units  and  tens  under  tens,  not  only  in 
pure  addition  but  in  subtraction,  multiplication,  division. 

The  children  should  be  taught  to  write  the  quotient 
over  the  dividend,  that  each  figure  may  go  in  its  proper 
place  and  the  whole  example  take  less  room,  but  they 
should  know  that  it  may  be  written  at  the  right  of  the 
dividend  if  one  chooses.  This  may  save  some  friction  and 
misunderstanding  at  home. 

Many  examples  in  division  should  be  done  in  class  by 
both  the  long  and  the  short  method,  with  careful  explana- 
tion of  the  relation  between  the  processes  as  the  work 
proceeds.    The  divisor  taken  should  always  be  small. 

Not  only  in  division  but  elsewhere  the  numbers  used 
when  a  new  process  is  being  introduced  should  be  so 
simple  that  the  pupil  has  no  difficulty  in  handling  the  num- 
bers. This  leaves  his  mind  perfectly  free  to  understand 
the  process. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  teach  the  little  children  to  place  the 
remainder  in  an  unequal  division  "'  on  the  shelf."  For 
example,  19-5-9  =  2^.  This  makes  a  good  preparation 
for  later  writing  of  the  remainder  fractionally.  This  frac- 
tion, or  numerator,  should  be  written  in  smaller  figures, 
both  here  and  in  other  places. 

It  should  be  thoroughly  impressed  upon  the  children 
that  such  a  remainder  is  the  undivided  part  and  that  any 
fraction  is  an  expression  of  division. 

[108] 


ARITHMETIC 

In  multiplying  a  mixed  number  by  a  mixed  number 
many  mistakes  will  be  avoided  if  the  child  is  trained  so 
that  he  habitually  looks  iox  four  multiplications — the 
whole  number  of  the  multiplicand  by  the  whole  number 
of  the  multiplier,  the  fraction  of  the  multiplicand  by  the 
whole  number  of  the  multiplier,  the  whole  number  of  the 
multiplicand  by  the  fraction  of  the  multiplier,  and  the  frac- 
tion of  the  multiplicand  by  the  fraction  of  the  multiplier. 

In  division  of  decimals  confusion  is  saved  if  the  divisor 
is  always  made  a  whole  number.  The  pupil  should  be 
made  sure  of  his  right  to  do  this  by  frequent  drill  on  the 
result  of  moving  the  decimal  point  and  of  multiplying 
dividend  and  divisor  by  the  same  number. 

In  finding  areas  pupils  should  not  say,  "  Multiply  the 
length  by  the  breadth,"  leading  later  to  multiplying  feet 
by  feet  and  getting  square  feet.  Of  course  the  idea  in- 
tended is  all  right,  but  it  is  better  to  train  them  to  say 
that  they  multiply  the  number  of  square  units  in  a  single 
row  by  the  number  of  rows,  or  some  equivalent  statement. 
The  same  should  hold  true  in  dealing  with  solids. 

Analysis  is  helped  if  the  pupil  is  trained  to  notice  that 
his  multiplier  must  be  abstract  always.  This  will  destroy 
the  tendency  to  multiply  by  eggs  or  dollars.  It  is  also 
well  for  him  to  state  just  what  the  problem  tells  and  what 
it  asks. 

As  many  simple  ways  as  possible  should  be  suggested 
to  pupils  for  simplifying  work,  such  as  the  thought  that 
lumber  will  cost  as  many  mills  a  foot  as  dollars  a  thousand, 
or  that  coal  will  be  half  as  many  mills  a  pound  as  dollars 
a  ton.  Business  ways  of  reckoning  should  be  found  and 
given  to  the  pupils.    For  example,  to  paper  a  room  first 

[109] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

find  the  perimeter,  or  distance  around  the  room  ;  from  the 
perimeter  subtract  the  widths  of  the  doors  and  windows ; 
reduce  this  result  to  half  yards  ;  this  number  of  half  yards 
equals  the  total  number  of  strips  required.  To  find  the 
length  of  one  strip  subtract  the  width  of  the  border  from 
the  height  of  the  room.  To  find  the  number  of  strips  in 
one  single  roll  divide  the  number  of  feet  in  one  single 
roll  by  the  number  of  feet  in  one  strip.  Divide  the  total 
number  of  strips  required,  by  the  number  of  strips  in  one 
single  roll,  and  the  result  will  be  the  number  of  single  rolls 
required.  To  find  the  number  of  strips  in  one  double  roll 
divide  the  length  of  one  double  roll  by  the  length  of  one 
strip.  To  find  the  number  of  double  rolls  required  divide 
the  total  number  of  strips  by  the  number  of  strips  in  one 
double  roll.  To  find  the  number  of  double  rolls  of  border 
required  divide  the  perimeter  of  the  room  by  the  length  of 
one  double  roll. 

Percentage  examples  are  usually  better  done  by  analysis 
of  the  individual  examples  rather  than  by  rules,  though  it 
may  be  of  advantage  to  know  the  rules  for  performing  the 
work  under  the  different  cases. 

Pupils  should  be  taught  most  thoroughly  that  in  dis- 
charging a  note  one  cannot  pay  the  principal  before  the 
interest  is  completely  met. 

REFERENCES 

Charters.    Teaching  the  Common  Branches.    Houghton  Miflflin 

Company. 
Courtis.    Standard  Research  Tests.    S.  A.  Courtis,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Fassett.    Standardized  Number  Tests.    Milton  Bradley  Company. 
Gray.    Number  by  Development.   J.  B.  Lippincott  Company. 

[IIO] 


ARITHMETIC 

HOYT  and  Peet.  First  Year  in  Number.  Houghton  Mifflin  Com- 
pany. 

Johnson.    Education  by  Plays  and  Games.    Ginn  and  Company. 

McMuRRY.  Special  Method  in  Arithmetic.  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany. 

Smith.   Teaching  of  Arithmetic.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Stone-Millis.    Primary  Arithmetic.    Benj.  H.  Sanborn  &  Co. 

Thompson.    Minimum  Essentials  (Arithmetic).   Ginn  and  Company. 

Wentworth-Smith.  Work  and  Play  with  Numbers.  Ginn  and 
Company. 


[Ill] 


CHAPTER  X 

READING 

Purpose  of  reading.  The  purpose  of  reading  in  our 
schools  should  be  to  make  the  children  readers  ;  to  cause 
them  to  turn  to  books,  magazines,  and  all  such  mate- 
rial, with  a  real  hunger  for  their  contents  and  with  ability 
to  estimate  the  value  of  such  contents ;  to  produce  the 
reading  habit,  with  the  intense  enjoyment  that  is  the  ac- 
companiment of  such  a  habit.  In  order,  however,  to  teach 
a  child  to  read  he  must  be  taught  how  to  read.  Care  should 
always  be  taken  that  the  real  object  of  the  work  is  not 
swallowed  up  by  the  lesser  aim. 

Primary  Reading 

The  word  method.  Children  may  be  taught  by  the 
word  method  till  they  have  been  given  sufficient  training 
in  the  value  of  sounds  so  that  they  can  study  out  words 
for  themselves.  After  this  power  is  acquired  to  a  degree, 
the  word  method  should  blend  with  the  sound  method,  the 
word  work  gradually  yielding  more  and  more  to  the 
phonetic  till  the  children  are  reading  by  sound. 

Object  and  action  work.  Object  and  action  work  is 
helpful  in  teaching  words,  and  by  means  of  such  work, 
great  interest  may  be  aroused  and  speed  of  learning  in- 
creased. For  this  work  little  toys  or  any  common  objects 
may  be  used.   The  children  find  the  object  or  perform  the 

[1X2] 


READING 

act,  as  the  teacher  writes  the  word.  "Doll,"  "baby,"  "cat," 
"dog,"  "rabbit,"  "ball,"  "hat,"  "run,"  "hop,"  "jump," 
"  sing,"  and  such  words,  are  good  to  begin  with.  Though 
drill  may  be  given  on  single  words  for  some  time  if  the 
teacher  chooses,  yet  it  is  better  to  give  sentences  very 
early  in  the  work.  For  this,  sentences  involving  the  objects 
and  actions  may  be  used,  like  "  Roll  the  ball,"  "  Bring  the 
doll,"  "  Make  the  cat  run,"  "  Clap  your  hands." 

Use  of  rhymes.  In  some  ways  type  sentences  furnish  a 
capital  means  of  work,  and  rhymes  make  excellent  type 
sentences  because  the  children  easily  learn  them  and  are 
pleased  with  the  rhythm.  Some  of  the  frequently  used 
methods  of  reading  are  based  on  the  rhyme,  and  the 
vocabularies  of  readers  are  so  similar  that  any  of  these 
methods  may  be  used  for  starting,  even  if  it  is  not  planned 
to  follow  the  method  entire.  If  any  such  method  is  found 
in  use,  the  teacher  will  do  well  to  follow  it  exactly,  till  she 
is  sure  she  knows  a  better  way.  If  no  particular  method  is 
in  use  and  the  school  is  furnished  with  sets  of  readers,  it  is 
easy  to  look  through  the  vocabulary  and  make  little  rhymes 
or  prose  sentences  which  contain  the  words  that  it  is  wished 
to  teach. 

The  general  scheme  for  teaching  reading  by  rhymes  is 
as  follows  :  Introduce  the  rhyme  by  telling  a  story  in  which 
the  rhyme  is  used  several  times.  Teach  the  rhyme  by  means 
of  reproduction  of  the  story  and  by  games  in  which  it  may 
be  made  to  occur.  Present  the  rhyme  written  on  board  and 
cardboard.  Have  it  said  from  the  board,  each  word  being 
pointed  to  as  the  rhyme  is  given.  Teach  the  class  to  recog- 
nize single  words  in  the  rhyme,  then  single  words  written 
on  the  board  outside  of  the  rhyme.    Soon  use  the  rhyme 

[113] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

words  in  other  sentences.  The  rhyme  serves  as  a  key,  and 
if  the  child  fails  to  recognize  a  word,  he  is  referred  to  the 
rhyme  to  find  it  out.  As  soon  as  he  is  familiar  with  all  the 
words  of  a  rhyme  a  new  one  is  presented  in  the  same  way, 
and  drill  is  given  upon  the  old  and  new  words.  This  line 
of  work  is  kept  up  until  the  child  has  acquired  sufficient 
power  with  sounds  so  the  word  method  may  be  dispensed 
with.  An  advantage  of  the  rhyme  method  over  other  forms 
of  word  reading  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  pupil  is  at  once 
made  self-supporting  and  is  able  to  find  out  for  himself,  by 
the  rhyme,  any  word  of  which  he  is  uncertain.  Each  new 
rhyme,  written  or  printed  on  cardboard,  is  hung  up  in  sight 
of  the  class  where  it  may  be  used  for  reference.  With  the 
rhymes,  as  with  any  method,  print  may  be  taught  together 
with  script  or  may  be  used  in  its  stead,  or  it  may  be  intro- 
duced by  comparison  after  a  few  weeks. 

The  reading  chart.  Though  the  blackboard  is  the  chief 
factor  for  presenting  the  words  and  sentences  during  the 
sight  reading,  yet  a  reading  chart  may  do  good  service  in 
supplementing  the  board  work  and  saving  much  time  for 
teacher  and  class.  There  are  charts  for  word  reading  to 
accompany  some  of  the  current  methods,  but  if  such  can- 
not be  obtained,  a  teacher  may  easily  make  one  by  aid  of 
the  rubber  pen  or  the  stamping  outfit  elsewhere  described. 
The  work  may  be  done  upon  sheets  of  brown  paper  or 
upon  cambric.  The  sheets  may  be  fastened  together  or 
handled  separately,  according  to  the  convenience  of  the 
user.  A  chart  of  this  kind  has  the  advantage  of  exactly 
fitting  the  needs  of  the  teacher  who  makes  it.  If  illus- 
trations are  wished  for,  they  may  be  done  in  water  color 
or  may  be  cut  from  books  or  magazines  and  applied. 

[114] 


READING 

The  chart  may  present  both  sentences  and  lists  of  words 
to  be  used  for  class  drill. 

Drill  cards.  Drill  cards  furnish  an  excellent  means  for 
giving  quick  drills.  These  cards  have  been  described  under 
the  head  of  Apparatus.  In  using  them  the  teacher  should 
stand  in  front  of  the  class,  in  such  a  place  that  all  the  class 
can  see.  She  should  hold  the  bunch  of  cards  in  a  vertical 
position  and  slip  the  card  from  back  to  front,  glancing  at 
the  back  of  each  card  as  she  slips  it,  to  see  what  word  is 
to  be  presented  to  the  class.  She  should  not  walk  about  so 
as  to  stand  near  the  child  called  upon,  nor  should  she  turn 
or  move  the  cards  in  any  way.  A  little  observation  or 
thought  will  show  that  if  all  the  class  are  to  see  all  the 
time,  the  only  way  is  to  hold  the  cards  still. 

While  variety  in  drills  is  an  advantage,  the  card  drill  is 
so  superior  in  many  ways  that  it  should  be  employed  again 
and  again.  Variety  may  be  furnished  by  such  means  as 
giving  the  child  the  card  or  dividing  the  class  into 
sides  and  seeing  which  side  will  name  more  words,  the 
card  being  dropped  into  one  or  the  other  pile  as  one  side 
or  the  other  answers.  The  cards  may  be  taken  right 
around  the  class,  or  individuals  may  be  called  upon,  or  the 
class  or  a  division  may  answer  in  concert.  The  word-cards 
may  be  used  also  for  other,  slower  drills.  They  may  be 
placed  upon  the  chalk  rail,  and  the  pupils  may  choose  a 
card  and  match  it  to  the  object  or  to  a  word  in  a  rhyme. 
Many  devices  of  this  kind  may  be  thought  of. 

Other  drills  for  sight  words.  The  pupil  may  name  words 
as  the  teacher  writes  them  and  name  them  again  as  the 
boardful  is  erased,  each  word  being  threatened  with  the 
eraser  to  draw  the  attention  of  the  class,  the  telling  being 

[lis] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

done  after  the  word  has  vanished.  As  the  teacher  writes 
a  word  the  child  may  name  it  and  find  it  in  a  standing  fist. 
He  may  name  all  the  words  he  knows  in  a  long  blackboard 
list,  but  the  lists  should  be  changed  frequently  to  make 
this  exercise  profitable. 

Such  devices  as  the  game  of  Cat  and  Mouse  or  of 
Fox  and  Geese,  with  the  pointer  and  words,  the  fish  pond, 
the  Christmas  tree,  the  stone  wall,  the  ladder-climbing,  the 
railway  train,  may  be  used  frequently  if  the  class  seems 
to  require  stimulating.  The  words  should  always  be  in  an 
upright  position  and  of  good  size.  The  guessing  game  is 
one  of  the  best  of  devices.  The  teacher  or  pupil  chooses 
a  word,  and  the  other  pupils  guess  it  by  pointing  to  the 
words  on  board  or  chart  and  naming  them  as  they  point. 

The  phonic,  or  phonetic,  method.  The  word  method  fails 
to  serve  by  itself  in  teaching  reading,  because  it  gives  the 
pupil  no  way  of  finding  out  new  words.  This  is  of  course 
a  vital  defect,  and  phonic  work  introduced  fairly  early  in 
the  course  is  essential  if  we  expect  good  independent  read- 
ing. The  word  method  should  be  supplemented  by  some 
method  which  uses  sounds  as  a  basis  and  so  makes  the 
child  able  to  discover  new  words  through  a  knowledge  of 
phonetic  values.  Among  progressive  teachers  the  fact  is 
well  established  that  careful  work  in  phonics  should  be 
undertaken  from  the  start.  There  are  now  available  excel- 
lent systems  of  phonetic  books  which  require  no  specially 
trained  teachers  and  whose  subject  matter  is  interesting  to 
children.  In  such  a  method  the  words  may  be  unmarked 
or  the  ordinary,  dictionary,  diacritical  marks  may  be  used. 
Which  is  done  depends  upon  the  teacher's  attitude,  as 
equally  good  arguments,  backed  by  equally  good  authorities, 

[ii6] 


READING 

may  be  quoted  in  support  of  either  practice.  There  is  gen- 
eral agreement,  however,  as  to  the  need  of  teaching  sounds. 

Though  reading  by  the  word  method  may  go  on  for 
weeks  or  months,  according  to  the  theories  of  the  teacher, 
yet  preparation  for  reading  by  sound  should  be  begun  soon 
after  the  child  enters  school.  He  should  be  taught  both 
the  sounds  of  the  letters  and  the  blending  of  sounds  into 
words,  but  this  work  is  best  carried  on  in  a  lesson  separate 
from  the  reading  lesson. 

Learning  sounds.  He  may  learn  the  sounds  by  analyzing 
words  into  their  elements,  beginning  usually  with  initial 
sounds,  as  r,  the  first  part  of  '"  run  "  ;  ^,  the  first  part  of 
"  day."  Later  he  may  use  other  parts  of  words,  as  ay^  the 
last  part  of  "day,"  "play,"  "say."  By  analysis  of  known 
words  in  this  way,  he  may  be  taught  the  sounds  of  single 
letters  and  of  the  more  usual  combinations  of  letters. 

If  preferred,  the  sounds  may  be  presented  outside  of 
words,  many  teachers  choosing  not  to  break  up  the  reading 
words  as  early  as  must  be  done  to  get  sounds  by  analysis. 
In  this  case  it  is  well  to  introduce  the  sounds  by  connect- 
ing them  with  stories,  r  representing  the  growl  of  the  cross 
dog,  /  the  sound  made  by  the  cross  cat,  t  the  tick  of  a 
watch,  s  the  sound  of  water  on  hot  iron,  d  the  sound 
of  the  dove.  Something  may  be  found  to  stand  for  nearly 
all  the  common  sounds.  Cards  with  pictures  of  the  object 
and  the  printed  and  the  script  letter  may  be  hung  around 
the  room  to  catch  the  eyes  of  the  children  and  strengthen 
the  association.  Such  cards  should  not  be  used  for  regular 
drill,  but  should  serve  as  a  key  only. 

Recognition  of  word  through  hearing  sounds.  Children 
need  drill  also,  through  one  or  two  years,  on  recognizing 

[117] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

words  which  they  hear  the  teacher  sound,  these  words  not 
being  presented  to  the  eye  at  all.  These  should  be  very 
easy  at  first,  but  later  may  grow  more  difficult.  Words  like 
"right,"  "sing,"  "say,"  and  "fill"  are  good  to  begin  with. 

Sounding  words.  As  soon  as  the  pupil  has  power 
enough  to  recognize  the  elements,  which  may  be  single 
letters,  combinations  of  letters,  or  smaller  sight  words,  he 
should  be  given  drills  on  sounding  words,  which  may  be 
presented  to  the  eye  on  board,  chart,  or  card.  These  words 
should  be  very  simple  at  first.  Lists  of  words  in  a  series 
are  best  to  start  with,  and  this  work  with  a  list  of  words 
containing  a  common  element  should  be  kept  up  for  a  long 
time,  but,  after  a  little,  many  words  arranged  miscellane- 
ously should  be  taken  also.  The  child  gives  the  sounds 
aloud  as  the  teacher  points  to  them,  and  then  he  names 
the  word. 

Need  of  continued  drill.  Drill  in  sounding  letters,  in 
recognizing  words  by  hearing,  and  in  sounding  words 
should  be  kept  up  indefinitely,  the  last  forming  the  work 
that,  under  the  head  of  word  study,  constitutes  the  pre- 
liminary for  all  school  reading. 

Phonetic  drills.  Phonetic  cards,  containing  a  single 
phonogram  either  simple  or  compound,  furnish  the  best 
means  of  drill.  These  cards  should  be  used  in  the  way 
recommended  for  the  sight-word  cards.  The  drill  may  also 
be  given  from  phonetic  charts  and  from  board  lists.  Other 
interesting  drills  are  the  following :  Show  letters  or  give 
sounds  and  have  the  pupils  tell  words  or  point  to  objects 
beginning  with  that  sound.  Make  sounds  or  give  names 
of  objects  and  have  pupils  find  the  letter  that  makes  the 
indicated  sound.    Many  variations  of  these  last  exercises 

[Ii8] 


READING 

may  be  made.  In  addition  to  this  work  with  single  sounds 
words  may  be  sounded  from  cards,  board,  and  chart.  This 
is  of  great  importance  and  should  never  be  omitted  in  the 
daily  work.  There  are  several  good  charts  to  be  obtained, 
or  one  may  be  made  by  the  teacher.  This  drill  work  be- 
ing of  so  much  value,  it  ought  as  early  as  possible  to  be 
incorporated  into  the  desk  work  and  made  to  serve  its 
purpose  without  ceasing. 

Sound  should  continue  to  be  the  basis  of  getting  words 
in  reading.  Remembering  that  this  sound  work  is  given 
as  a  means  of  reading,  the  teacher  should  never  fail  to 
use  it  to  that  end.  Some  teachers  keep  their  phonics  al- 
ways apart  from  reading,  while  others  use  the  work  for  a 
little  while  and  later  discard  it.  As  early  as  possible  it 
should  be  made  a  direct  means  for  reading  and  should  so 
serve  continuously. 

If  no  method  is  in  use.  If  the  teacher  finds  a  particular 
method  being  employed  in  her  school,  she  should  use  it ; 
but  if  no  method  is  given  her,  and  she  has  only  the  usual 
school  readers,  she  should  adapt  her  method  to  the  cir- 
cumstances. She  should  teach  the  most  common  sounds 
first.  She  should  do  much  gejieral  phonetic  work,  because 
every  common  word  sounded  by  a  child  tends  to  suggest 
to  him  that  the  proper  way  of  getting  at  words  is  through 
sound.  The  teacher  should  also,  as  soon  as  the  child  ad- 
vances a  little,  —  say  with  the  beginning  of  the  First  Reader, 
—  watch  in  his  book  for  every  word  of  which  he  has  had 
the  elements,  include  it  in  the  board  lists,  and  also  have 
the  child  get  it  by  sounding  from  his  book  if  he  falters  over 
it  in  his  reading.  If  this  plan  is  kept  up  carefully,  very  soon 
the  pupil  will  be  able  to  get  most  new  words  phonetically. 

[119] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Any  teacher  may  obtain  much  help  by  study  of  the  manuals 
issued  in  connection  with  the  various  reading  methods. 
This  is  true  whether  she  is  following  a  particular  method 
or  working  along  by  herself  in  an  attempt  to  formulate  one. 

Supplementary  reading.  It  is  not  usually  necessary  for 
little  children  to  study  their  reading  lessons  in  advance, 
but  it  is  very  desirable  that  they  read  silently  and  by  them- 
selves from  books  of  about  the  same  grade  as  the  class 
readers  or  a  little  easier.  If  a  supplementary  set  of  different 
kinds  has  been  secured,  as  suggested  earlier,  each  child 
will  have  access  to  as  many  books  as  he  can  read  in  the 
time  available.  These  books,  arranged  on  a  desk  or  low 
shelf,  may  be  called  the  First-  and  Second-Grade  Library, 
and  the  children  will  doubly  enjoy  the  idea  of  going  to  the 
library  or  of  borrowing  books  from  it.  In  addition  to  this, 
the  children  should  be  encouraged  to  read  at  home,  both 
silently  and  aloud.  There  should  also  be  much  class  read- 
ing, from  books  easier  than  the  regular  readers.  The 
teacher  should  read  to  the  class  frequently.  Dramatizing, 
and  anything  that  will  give  life  and  interest  to  the  work, 
should  abound.  Every  effort  should  be  made  to  create  an 
interest  in  reading,  a  desire  to  read  much  and  well. 

Reading  with  good  expression  has  its  effect  in  produc- 
ing a  desire  to  read.  In  the  work  with  higher  grades,  sug- 
gestions are  made  which  should  help  to  better  expression. 
Here  it  may  be  said  that  a  child  reads  well  that  which 
he  thoroughly  understands  and  enjoys.  Getting  the  story 
ready,  talking  about  the  conditions,  playing  one  is  the  per- 
son speaking,  imitation,  many  such  devices,  serve  as  a 
help,  and  always  the  child  should  be  impressed  with  the 
fact  that  in  oral  reading  he  must  give  an  idea  to  others  in 

[I20] 


READING 

such  a  way  that  they  may  understand  and  enjoy  it  with 
him.  One  of  the  best  means  in  such  work  is  the  having 
frequent  exercises  in  which  one  pupil  reads  and  the  others 
are  without  books  or  else  close  their  books  and  listen. 
This  work  is  of  advantage  through  all  the  grades. 

Advanced  Reading 

Difficulties  and  general  method  of  treating.  With  the 
children  who  have  advanced  somewhat  in  the  art  of  read- 
ing, the  work  often  presents  greater  difficulties  than  does 
that  with  a  class  of  beginners,  since  these  children  fre- 
quently have  not  acquired  the  power  of  reading  thought- 
fully and  expressively  and  of  making  their  reading  a  large 
means  of  acquiring  information.  It  is  to  accomplish  these 
things  and  to  arouse  in  the  children  a  fondness  for  the  right 
kind  of  reading,  that  the  teacher  must  work  long  and  faith- 
fully. Often  the  more  advanced  classes  have  been  taught  to 
read  by  the  word  method  only  and  are  without  a  means  for 
getting  new  words.  So  the  first  thing  the  teacher  should 
do  is  to  ascertain  how  much  the  child  is  able  to  sound 
words,  and  if  he  is  found  lacking,  to  teach  him  to  know 
the  sounds  of  all  the  letters  and  common  combinations 
and  the  way  of  sounding  words.  This  may  be  done  much 
more  quickly  than  with  the  younger  children,  but  in  about 
the  same  way.  The  work  may  be  given  in  the  word-study 
time,  which  should  form  a  period  by  itself,  but  it  may  also 
be  taken  as  a  part  of  each  reading  period  if  that  seems 
better.  If  the  children  are  reading  matter  too  difficult  for 
them,  they  may  be  put  back,  or  the  reading  lesson  may  be 
made  very  short  and  a  large  part  of  the  time,  at  first,  be 
occupied  by  the  phonetic-drill  work.    Such  classes  should 

[121] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

also  have  many  exercises  in  giving  the  sounds  called  for, 
as,  "  What  is  the  sound  of  short  e,  which  is  marked  with 
the  curve,  or  breve  ? "  "  What  is  the  sound  of  long  a, 
which  is  marked  with  the  straight  line,  or  macron  ?  "  Till 
the  child  gains  some  power  the  teacher  will  have  to  help 
him  to  get  words  by  telling  him  the  syllables  or  by  spell- 
ing, but  she  should  aid  him  by  sounds  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

Work  for  pronunciation.  In  order  for  a  child  to  read 
well  in  class,  he  should  know  how  to  pronounce  the  words. 
This,  as  stated,  should  be  accomplished  by  the  word  study. 
Such  words  as  seem  troublesome  should  be  put  upon  the 
board  and  taken  up  with  the  children  before  the  study  of 
the  lesson  is  taken.  They  may  be  marked  diacritically  if 
it  seems  best.  They  should  be  carefully  and  correctly  pro- 
nounced by  the  children,  A  word  not  known  should  be 
sounded,  the  child  being  helped  in  the  sounding  by  telling 
the  accent  mark,  the  syllables,  or  the  sounds  of  the  letters. 
The  pronunciation  of  the  list  may  be  repeated  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  recitation  if  the  teacher  thinks  it  necessary. 

Work  for  understanding.  To  read  intelligently,  a  child 
needs  to  know  the  meaning  of  the  words  and  of  the  selec- 
tion as  a  whole.  For  this  he  may  be  trained  generally  to 
look  up  in  the  dictionary  such  words  as  he  does  not  know 
the  meaning  of,  and  specific  words  may  be  assigned  to 
look  up.  He  should  also  be  trained  to  the  habit  of  judging 
what  a  word  may  mean  by  its  use  in  the  sentence. 

Understanding  the  whole  idea  of  the  lesson  is  best 
gained  by  thought,  and  much  free  discussion  is  a  great 
aid  to  thought.  Talking  about  the  lesson  before,  after,  and 
during  the  reading  not  only  greatly  enlarges  a  child's 
understanding  of  the  subject  matter  but  puts  him  in  a 

[122] 


READING 

sympathetic  attitude  which  greatly  helps  his  reading. 
There  should  be  little  limit  to  permission  given  the  chil- 
dren to  ask  questions  freely  and  to  volunteer  opinions,  and 
such  free  questioning  is  sometimes  stimulated  by  requir- 
ing the  children  to  prepare  several  questions  to  be  asked 
of  each  other.  Free  discussion,  in  which  the  child  is  moved 
by  interest  and  tells  his  opinions  and  asks  those  of  others, 
maintaining  his  ground  by  argument,  is  better  than  telling 
the  story  of  the  lesson,  though  that  has  its  place.  Too 
close  discussion  of  every  paragraph  as  it  is  read,  the  mean- 
ing of  every  word  and  idea  being  dragged  out  from  the 
one  who  has  done  the  reading,  is  likely  to  defeat  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  was  intended.  It  is  better  to  have  a 
collection  of  paragraphs  read  and  have  a  general  class  dis- 
cussion at  intervals.  The  one  who  has  done  the  reading 
should  usually  correct  his  own  mistakes  of  pronunciation  or 
meaning,  but  if  he  also  tells  all  about  the  section,  he  gets 
too  much  time,  and  the  rest  of  the  .class  lose  their  interest. 
Other  aids.  Punctuation  furnishes  an  aid  to  correct 
reading,  but  it  is  not  well  to  have  the  children  read  by 
following  punctuation  rules.  They  should  be  taught  that 
every  punctuation  mark  means  something,  and  therefore 
one  should  seldom  be  read  over.  •  A  period,  for  example, 
shows  the  end  of  a  thought,  and  the  reading  should  rec- 
ognize this ;  a  comma  indicates  a  slight  division  and  so 
should  not  be  overlooked.  The  child  should  be  trained  to 
make  his  reading  say  something  as  he  thinks  the  author 
meant  it  to  be  said.  He  should  read  so  that  he  may  en- 
tertain and  please  his  classmates,  who  form  his  audience. 
Many  general  directions  of  this  sort  will  help  children  to 
a  power  to  read  well. 

[123] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Position  and  voice.  When  the  time  comes  for  an  indi- 
vidual child  to  read  he  should  pass  to  the  front  of  the 
room,  with  book  held  at  his  side  or  in  some  other  easy 
position.  He  should  not  study  the  page  on  his  way.  He 
should  stand  facing  the  class,  erect,  on  both  feet,  with 
head  up.  The  book  should  be  held  so  he  can  see  easily 
and  so  the  mouth  shall  not  be  covered.  No  exact  direction 
can  be  given,  as  eyes  differ,  but  usually  the  book  is  held 
too  near  the  body,  and  the  head  is  dropped  so  that  clear 
utterance  is  impossible.  To  get  the  head  fixed  and  then 
adjust  the  book  is  a  good  order.  The  high,  harsh,  school- 
room shout  or  scream  should  be  avoided,  as  should  the 
schoolroom  mumble.  Distinct,  rather  than  loud,  reading  is 
what  is  needed,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  there 
are  partially  deaf  children  in  nearly  every  company. 

Interruptions  and  corrections.  The  child  should  read 
uninterruptedly .  There  should  have  been  abundant  word 
study,  and  that  is  supposed  to  have  included  the  hard 
words.  Now  the  pupil  should  show  what  he  can  do.  In- 
terruptions break  the  thought,  disturb  the  reader  and  the 
listeners,  and  are  altogether  undesirable.  They  easily  turn 
the  reading  time  into  another  word-study  period.  After 
the  reader  finishes  his  paragraph  the  teacher  should  help 
him  to  correct  his  mistakes.  She  should  not  stand  near 
him,  since  all  the  class  will  be  benefited  by  the  work  and 
all  should  hear.  She  should  indicate  the  mispronounced 
words  by  line  and  number,  help  him  to  see  the  exact  mis- 
take and  correct  it,  bring  out  any  wrong  impression  by 
questions,  and  then,  if  necessary,  have  him  read  it  again. 
If  the  teacher  looks  after  the  corrections  instead  of  having 
the  children  correct  each  other,  their  attention  is  saved 

[124] 


READING 

for  the  really  important  things  of  reading  instead  of  being 
centered  on  the  finding  of  petty  flaws. 

It  is  very  essential  that  corrections  be  made  in  a  way  to 
increase  a  child's  power  to  read.  Telling  him  how  to  pro- 
nounce is  of  very  little  value.  He  may  be  told  a  dozen 
times  the  way  to  pronounce  a  word  and  be  little  better  off. 
Often  he  gives  it  correctly  except  for  the  sound  of  a  single 
letter,  or  the  accent.  Much  time  may  be  saved  if  the 
teacher  learns  to  recognize  the  exact  difficulty  instead  of 
working  haphazard  for  a  long  time  over  a  word.  In  gen- 
eral, the  things  that  matter  are  the  ones  to  be  corrected, 
and  certain  unimportant  things  may  be  passed  by.  It  is 
not  wise  to  take  half  the  recitation  period  to  correct  the 
blunders  of  one  child.  Some  of  his  mistakes  may  be 
passed,  or  he  may  read  a  shorter  section.  True  it  is  that 
he  needs  the  reading  and  the  correction,  but  the  attention 
of  a  whole  class  should  not  be  lost  except  for  very  large 
reasons. 

Re-reading.  Certain  children  need  extra  reading  after 
school  with  the  teacher.  It  is  better  to  take  it  then  than 
to  waste  the  time  of  the  class  and  hurt  the  self-respect  of 
the  child  by  frequent  re-reading  or  by  taking  too  much 
time.  It  is  not  kind  to  have  the  work  of  some  children 
always  marked  as  unsatisfactory  by  having  the  paragraph 
read  immediately  by  some  child  who  can  do  it  better,  nor 
is  this  specially  good  for  the  one  who  reads  it  better.  This 
reading  over  may  be  done  in  a  few  instances  when  several 
have  a  try  at  it,  but  ordinarily  it  is  better  to  have  the  read- 
ing progress  without  much  repetition.  Much  of  the  repeat- 
ing is  unnecessary.  One  need  not  read  a  whole  paragraph 
for  one  or  two  mispronounced  words.    No  reading  over 

[125] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

should  be  done  till  the  mistakes  are  corrected,  and  a  second 
reading,  when  one  is  given,  should  always  show  a  marked 
improvement  over  the  first.  It  is  to  be  remembered,  how- 
ever, that  poetry  differs  from  prose,  and  the  stanzas  may 
well  be  read  more  than  once  in  many  cases,  suggestions 
and  corrections  following  each  reading. 

There  has  been  not  only  too  much  reading  over  of  para- 
graphs but  too  much  reassignment  of  lessons.  This  has 
been  due  in  part  .to  lack  of  books,  but  a  teacher  may  better 
worry  her  superintendent  greatly  in  her  demand  for  new 
material  than  waste  the  time  and  courage  of  the  class  by 
droning  over  books  they  .already  know  by  heart,  while  the 
world  is  full  of  good  literature  going  to  waste. 

Best  reading  material.  Readers  of  the  kind  called  sup- 
plementary are  very  much  better  than  the  ordinary  reading 
books.  Methods  of  getting  such  reading  have  already  been 
suggested.  If  books  are  obtainable  only  with  difficulty,  one 
may  get  on  fairly  well  if  only  the  teacher  and  the  pupil 
reading  have  a  book,  the  others  listening  in  turn.  The 
books  read  in  class  should  be  really  worth  while,  and  those 
not  too  long  should  be  chosen  ;  "  Little  Nell,"  for  example, 
being  better  in  this  respect  than  "  Little  Women."  It 
should  be  kept  in  mind  that  much  reading  of  good  litera- 
ture is  the  very  best  means  of  training  children  to  love 
that  kind.  The  teacher  may  also  do  much  in  the  way  of 
increasing  love  of  good  literature  by  judicious  recommen- 
dation and  suggestions  on  those  lines.  It  were  better  that 
a  child  were  given  a  fondness  for  good  books  than  that  he 
learn  by  heart  the  pages  of  many  textbooks.  The  silent 
reading  in  the  schools  should  be  much  increased,  read- 
ing being  done  in  connection  with  geography,  history, 

[126] 


READING 

language,  and  science.  There  should  be  much  of  this  sort 
of  reading,  with  short  reports  in  class.  In  this  way  the 
research  habit  is  formed  and  the  expression  habit  aided. 
It  is  worth  much  to  get  a  child  to  the  place  where  he 
turns  to  books  for  information.  Every  means  should  be 
employed  to  create  and  maintain  a  taste  for  right  reading, 
yet  far  too  often  a  teacher,  by  her  attitude  if  not  by  her 
words,  discourages  a  child's  interest  in  books. 

REFERENCES 

Arnold,  Bonney,  and  Southworth.  See  and  Say  Series.  Ginn 
and  Company. 

Arnold.  Reading  and  How  to  Teach  It.  Silver,  Burdett  &  Com- 
pany. 

Briggs  and  Coffman.  Reading  in  Public  Schools.  Row,  Peterson 
and  Company. 

Fassett.  Beacon  Method  (Phonetic  Chart,  Reading  Chart,  Percep- 
tion Cards,  Word  Builders,  and  Readers).    Ginn  and  Company. 

McMuRRY.    Special  Method  in  Reading.   The  Macmillan  Company. 

Manual  for  Progressive  Road  to  Reading.  Silver,  Burdett  &  Com- 
pany. 

Spaulding  and  Bryce.  Learning  to  Read  (Aldine).  Newson  & 
Company. 

Summers  Reading  Manual.    Frank  D.  Beattys  &  Co. 

Taylor.  Principles  and  Methods  of  Teaching  Reading.  The  Mac- 
millan Company. 

Ward  Reading  Manual.    Silver,  Burdett  &  Company. 

Dramatic  Readers  mentioned  on  page  263. 


[127] 


CHAPTER  XI 

DICTIONARY  STUDY 

Power  to  use  the  dictionary  is  necessary  for  much  of 
the  regular  school  work,  and  children  should  be  trained 
early  not  only  to  the  power  but  to  the  habit  of  consulting 
it.  Many  teachers  begin  earlier,  but  if  the  dictionary  has 
become  a  ready  tool  during  the  fourth  and  fifth  school 
years,  that  will  answer  all  practical  purposes. 

Preparation  for  formal  dictionary  study.  As  a  prepara- 
tion for  the  work,  a  review  should  be  given  in  arranging 
lists  of  words  alphabetically :  first,  according  to  the  first 
letters  ;  later,  according  to  all  the  letters.  For  this  last  it 
is  a  good  plan  to  give  lists,  all  words  of  which  begin  with 
the  same  letter.  The  teacher  will  have  to  make  sure  that 
the  children  know  the  letters  in  their  order.  When  they 
can  arrange  such  lists  readily  they  may  do  some  diacritical 
marking  of  words.  Teachers  will  do  well  to  see  if  they 
themselves  can  do  this  correctly.  A  good  way  to  find  out 
is  to  mark  some  words  and  then  sound  according  to  the 
markings,  and  note  results.  If  children  have  been  given 
marked  words  in  connection  with  their  reading,  no  trouble 
need  arise  here.  If  not,  they  will  have  to  be  taught 
most  carefully  the  dictionary  markings  for  all  vowels  and 
consonants. 

Class  practice  in  looking  up  words.  When  the  pupils 
can  arrange  a  list  easily  and  interpret  markings  with  a  fair 

[128] 


DICTIONARY  STUDY 

degree  of  skill,  they  are  ready  to  look  up  some  sample 
words.  The  first  work  should  be  done  in  class  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  teacher,  A  small  dictionary  should 
be  used,  as  the  larger  ones  are  confusing.  It  works  well 
to  begin  the  exercise  by  asking  the  general  place  in  the 
alphabet  of  a  number  of  letters ;  for  example,  c  near  the 
beginning,  in  and  n  near  the  middle,  s  toward  the  close, 
r  just  before  s,  w  quite  a  distance  beyond  s.  In  this  way 
the  pupil  gets  a  notion  of  where  to  open  the  book  in  look- 
ing up  a  word  and  of  which  way  to  turn  when  it  is  opened. 
Finding  the  proper  letter,  he  looks  for  the  word  near  the 
beginning,  the  middle,  or  end  of  that  section,  as  the  case 
may  be.  He  is  trained  to  know  whether  he  is  almost  there 
or  whether  he  has  gone  too  far,  by  his  observation  of  the 
successive  letters ;  abr,  for  instance,  coming  before  abs. 
The  words  at  the  heads  of  the  columns  will  help  also. 

Determining  pronunciation.  Having  found  the  word,  he 
learns  to  get  its  pronunciation  by  the  markings  and  accent, 
or  in  some  cases  by  finding  it  spelled  out.  Sometimes  he 
has  to  turn  to  the  key  at  the  bottom  of  the  page,  but  it  is 
better  that  his  key  should  be  located  in  his  brain,  though 
he  ought  to  know  that  different  dictionaries  sometimes 
differ  in  their  markings.  Webster  markings,  however,  are 
nearly  identical  with  those  in  use  in  most  of  the  modern 
reading  series. 

Knowledge  of  parts  of  speech.  It  is  further  necessary, 
in  part  for  the  pronunciation,  sometimes  for  the  meaning, 
that  the  child  learn  the  markings  for  the  different  parts  of 
speech  :  a.  for  adjective,  v.  for  verb,  adv.  for  adverb.  He 
needs  also  an  ever-increasing  ability  to  recognize  the  parts 
of  speech  as  he  meets  them  anywhere.    Their  value  in 

[129] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

dictionary  study  furnishes  a  strong  argument  for  giving 
much  simple  practice  in  such  recognition  through  the 
fourth  grade  and  upwards,  yet  the  recognition  of  parts  of 
speech  is  a  difficult  thing,  and  perfection  should  be  only 
aimed  at  and  not  expected  for  a  long  time. 

Testing  knowledge  of  meaning.  The  test  of  a  child's 
knowledge  of  the  meaning  of  words  is  found  in  his  power 
to  use  them  intelligently.  Little  children,  in  connection 
with  their  word  study,  may  be  asked  the  meaning  of  many 
words,  no  exact  definition  being  expected,  only  something 
that  shows  the  child's  understanding.  The  teacher  may 
also  give  simple  definitions  in  place  of  asking  the  pupil 
or  may  illustrate  the  use  of  the  word.  The  pupil  should 
frequently  give  words  in  sentences.  It  is  a  pleasing  exer- 
cise as  well  as  a  profitable  one.  From  the  time  when  the 
dictionary  comes  into  use,  the  teacher  should  repeatedly 
test  the  child's  definition  by  the  sentence.  Excellent  prac- 
tice is  furnished  by  selecting  words  from  the  reading  lesson 
for  looking  up.  The  pupil  should  find  the  word  in  the 
reader  and  the  definition  in  the  dictionary.  He  should 
read  the  sentence  aloud  from  the  book  or  from  his  copy 
of  it.  Then  he  may  substitute  his  definition  for  the  word 
in  the  book.  He  may  also  give  an  original  sentence  con- 
taining the  word  and  an  original  sentence  with  the  defini- 
tion substituted.  Care  should  be  used  that  the  sentence 
really  shows  if  the  child  understands  the  meaning.  It  is 
not  wise  to  try  to  teach  all  the  meanings  the  word  may 
have,  just  its  meaning  in  the  particular  place  being  better. 
Many  teachers,  by  assigning  a  few  words  daily  to  be  looked 
up,  in  time  enlarge  greatly  the  children's  vocabularies  and 
increase  interest  in  the  study  of  words. 

[130] 


DICTIONARY  STUDY 

-  Need  of  individual  dictionaries.  Each  child  should  have 
a  small  dictionary  to  keep  in  his  desk.  There  should  also 
be  a  larger  one  for  general  use.  Webster's  Collegiate 
Dictionary  serves  very  well  for  all  the  more  usual  needs 
of  a  school. 

REFERENCES 

AsHMORE.    Manual  of  Pronunciation.    Ginn  and  Company. 
Webster's  Collegiate  Dictionary.    G.  &  C.  Merriam  Company. 


[131] 


CHAPTER  XII 

SPELLING 

Time  of  beginning.  Opinions  vary  as  to  the  best  time 
for  beginning  spelling.  Many  do  much  work  with  it  during 
the  first  year,  while  others  do  not  begin  it  till  the  middle 
of  the  second.  Third-grade  children  should  undoubtedly 
have  made  quite  a  deal  of  progress  in  the  spelling  of  sim- 
ple words,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  much  may 
be  done  towards  making  spelling  easy  before  set  spelling 
lessons  are  begun. 

Manner  of  beginning.  Before  children  are  able  to  do 
much  in  the  writing  line  they  may  be  given  spelling  prac- 
tice by  means  of  the  word-building  letter  cards.  Work  of 
this  sort  may  be  done  at  their  desks  to  any  extent  desired 
by  the  teacher.  As  soon  as  pupils  begin  to  write  at  all 
freely  they  may  copy  from  board  or  paper  very  short  sen- 
tences containing  the  words  used  in  their  reading.  A 
sentence  made  by  the  pupil  and  written  on  the  board  by 
the  teacher  should  be  copied  over  and  over,  till  at  last  the 
teacher,  thinking  the  child  must  have  a  mental  picture  of 
the  words,  erases  them  and  tells  him  to  write  the  sentence 
many  times  on  his  paper  without  seeing  it.  If  he  can  write 
it  without  looking  at  it,  he  knows  how  to  spell  the  words 
in  a  way  sufficient  for  his  needs.  Getting  so  one  knows 
how  a  word  looks  is  an  important  step  in  the  process  of 
spelling.    This  plan  of  writing  sentences  from  copy  and 

[132] 


SPELLING 

finally  from  dictation,  when  once  begun,  should  be  kept 
up  during  all  the  first  years.  After  a  while  the  sentences 
may  grow  longer,  but  they  should  not  increase  in  length 
too  rapidly,  short  sentences  being  best  for  some  time. 

Series  spelling.  As  early,  also,  as  the  time  when  the 
child  has  mastered  in  his  reading  work  the  sounds  of  the 
more  common  single  letters  and  the  combinations  earliest 
met,  he  may  begin  to  make  progress  in  building  words 
from  common  elements  —  work  which  is  generally  called 
series  spelling.  To  neglect  this  drill  is  to  make  the  child 
work  for  a  long  time  in  conquering  individually  words  which 
he  might  just  as  well  overcome  in  squads  of  varying  size. 
Knowing  that  a-i-l  spells  "  ail,"  he  can  with  ease  and  inter- 
est make  a  large  number  of  ail  words  and  thereafter  have 
them  at  his  command.  This  work,  begun  reasonably  early, 
may  be  prolonged  —  in  connection  with  other  spelling  — 
through  the  third  year,  and  it  forms  an  excellent  medium 
for  establishing  a  pronounced  spelling  interest,  the  interest 
increasing  with  the  age  of  the  children.  The  child  learns 
to  spell  and  gets  a  broad  view  of  the  demands  of  spelling, 
as  much  through  the  words  he  suggests  for  his  series  only 
to  have  them  discarded  as  through  those  that  are  accepted. 
If,  for  example,  he  is  using  the  oat  series  : 

"  What  word  can  you  think  of  .?  "  says  the  teacher. 

"  I  should  use  b  with  oat!' 

"  What  will  the  word  be  ?  " 

"  '  Boat.'  " 

"  Spell  '  boat.'  " 

"  B-o-a-t,  '  boat.'  " 

"  Who  has  another  word  .-'  " 

"  '  Coat,'  "  says  the  next. 

[133] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

"  How  shall  we  spell  it  ?  " 
''K-o-a-tr 

"  K  does  make  that  sound,  but  we  use  another  letter 
here.    What  other  letter  makes  that  sound  ?  " 

"  cr 

"  That  is  the  one.    Now  spell  '  coat.'  " 

"  C-o-a-tr 

"  Who  has  another  word  }  " 

" '  Noat.'  " 

"  No,  we  spell  '  note '  n-o-t-e.  That  gives  you  a  new 
way  of  saying  ote.  We  will  try  those  words  a  little  later. 
Can  you  think  of  another  ?  " 

"  '  Moat.'  " 

"  Yes.  What  does  that  mean  ?  We  may  also  use  m 
with  o-t-e.    What  does  m-o-t-e  mean  1 " 

The  words  of  the  intended  series  and  of  the  new  sug- 
gested series  being  put  on  the  board  in  columns,  and  the 
incorrect  spelling,  like  k-o-a-t,  not  being  written,  the  child 
has  profited  by  his  mistakes. 

The  work  of  the  lesson  may  be  continued  on  paper,  the 
pupil  writing  all  the  words  he  can  think  of.  The  teacher, 
looking  over  the  papers  afterwards,  finds  certain  errors  that 
may  be  taken  up  before  the  class  in  general,  a  few  to  be 
spoken  of  individually.  It  is  often  well  to  make  a  revised 
list  from  the  papers  of  the  children  and  put  it  upon  the 
board,  to  be  surely  learned  by  all  the  class.  Usually  the  chil- 
dren will  suggest  words  of  one  syllable,  but  frequently  much 
longer  ones  will  be  thought  of.  Bouton's  "  Spelling  and 
Word  Building  "  and  the  "  See  and  Say  Series,"  Books  II, 
III,  and  IV,  furnish  good  material  for  this  work.  In 
connection  with  the  series   spelling,  the  pupil  may  be 

[134] 


SPELLING 

taught  much  in  the  way  of  putting  his  spelling  on  a  logical 
basis,  for  though  spelling  is  greatly  a  matter  of  the  eye,  yet 
certain  sounds  are  habitually  made  by  certain  letters  and 
certain  letters  make  certain  sounds,  and  the  child  should 
be  made  to  recognize  this.  That  is  what  was  meant  by 
saying  that  a  foundation  may  be  laid  for  spelling  before 
a  great  deal  of  actual  spelling  is  done. 

Learning  value  of  letters.  Learning  the  value  of  letters 
for  spelling  may  be  begun  along  with  learning  the  sounds. 
The  teacher  should  ask  repeatedly  what  letter  or  letters 
may  make  a  certain  sound  which  she  gives  orally,  and  she 
should  drill  on  what  sounds  certain  given  letters  may  make. 
A  common  mistake  in  spelling  is  illustrated  by  these  words : 
mad,  intended  for  "  made  "  ;  mtdtittid,  for  "  multitude." 
The  child  should  be  taught  to  know  that  nt-a-d  spells 
"  mad  "  ;  that  the  very  thing  that  makes  us  pronounce 
m-a-d-e  '"  made  "  is  the  silent  e  at  the  end,  which  always 
changes  short  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  into  long  a,  e,  i,  o,  u.  If  he  is 
taught  the  effect  of  i  upon  a  in  such  words  as  "  plain," 
"  gain,"  *'  rain,"  then  he  will  remember  to  put  it  in.  It  is 
better  to  teach  the  relation  between  letters  and  sounds  and 
show  the  pupil  how  to  think  out  a  corresponding  letter  for 
a  given  sound  in  a  few  words  than  to  spell  mechanically 
a  large  number.  True,  his  reasoning  will  often  fail,  but 
his  spelling  will  often  come  right  in  this  way,  and  .at  any 
rate  it  will  usually  approximate  the  real  sound  of  the  word. 

Spelling  of  miscellaneous  words.  Early  in  school  work 
the  pupil  may  be  given  miscellaneous  words  for  spelling 
lessons.  These  words  may  be  selected  from  his  reading 
or  other  lessons  or  from  a  spelling  book.  Where  reading 
is  taught  by  phonic  methods  spelling  books  are  needed  less 

[135] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

than  where  the  word  method  only  is  followed.  Still,  spell- 
ing books  have  much  to  commend  them.  If  too  hard  or  too 
rare  words  are  encountered,  the  teacher  should  use  judg- 
ment in  making  omissions.  Children  have  a  reading  vocab- 
ulary in  excess  of  their  writing  vocabulary ;  that  is,  they 
understand  many  words  that  they  meet  in  reading,  which 
they  would  never  employ  in  their  writing  —  just  as  a  little 
child  for  a  long  time  understands  what  is  said  to  him 
though  unable  to  express  himself  freely.  A  child's  spell- 
ing vocabulary  needs  to  keep  up  with  his  writing  vocab- 
ulary, but  not  necessarily  to  equal  that  of  his  reading. 
Most  spellers  are  at  least  a  year  too  advanced,  so  that  it 
would  be  well  to  have  each  grade  spelling  the  words  in- 
tended by  the  author  for  the  year  before.  Not  only  that, 
but  the  teacher,  knowing  the  power  of  her  class,  should 
select  such  words  as  fit  their  needs  and  calmly  pass  by  the 
rest.  Always  it  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  common 
words,  like  "till,"  "until,"  "which,"  "where,"  "there," 
"their,"  and-" gone,"  are  the  words  that  the  children  will 
most  surely  need  and  which  they  will  be  less  likely  to  look 
up  in  the  dictionary  than  the  harder  ones.  The  pupils  may 
be  relied  upon  to  learn  the  spelling  of  some  words  through 
finding  them  in  their  reading,  and  that  method  of  learn- 
ing should  be  trusted  to  in  the  case  of  unusual  words  or 
those  needed  for  school  work  only. 

Oral  and  written  spelling  necessary.  The  child  uses 
his  spelling  in  his  writing  almost  exclusively,  but  oral  spell- 
ing is  quicker  and  more  interesting,  and  many  children 
find  the  act  of  writing  so  difficult  that  they  have  no  thought 
power  left  with  which  to  spell.  Such  children  need  to 
amass  and  store  many  words  through  oral  spelling.    It 

[136] 


SPELLING 

seems  evident  that  both  oral  and  written  spelling  should 
be  used.  In  lower  grades  the  oral  should  be  greatly  in  ex- 
cess of  written ;  in  middle,  they  should  be  about  equal ;  in 
the  highest,  the  written  somewhat  in  excess.  Definitions 
very  simply  expressed  and  sentences  employing  the  word 
should  be  a  frequent  accompaniment  of  the  lesson. 

Oral  spelling.  In  neither  oral  nor  written  spelling  should 
the  words  be  given  out  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  pre- 
sented for  study.  For  oral  work  it  is  well  to  have  the  word 
pronounced  before  and  after  spelling,  and  many  good  re- 
sults come  if  the  spelling  is  done  by  syllables,  each  syllable 
being  pronounced  after  it  is  spelled.  Many  devices  may 
be  adopted  for  improving  oral  spelling.  The  children  may 
stand  by  rows,  each  child  sitting  as  he  spells  correctly.  If 
desired,  the  teacher  may  quickly  write  each  misspelled 
word  correctly  on  the  board  for  the  child  to  spell  right 
before  he  sits.  Account  may  be  kept  of  the  number  of 
words  missed  by  each  row.  The  words  may  usually  be 
given  out  with  better  effect  miscellaneously,  as  each  child 
listens  rather  more  closely. 

Written  spelling.  In  written  spelling,  neat  papers  should 
be  exacted,  the  children  being  trained  to  spell  the  word  cor- 
rectly the  first  time.  Syllable  separation  should  be  avoided 
here,  as  such  a  separation  keeps  the  word  from  giving  to 
the  eye  the  right  effect  so  valuable  in  helping  to  correct 
spelling  with  some  people.  The  words  should  be  begun 
with  small  letters  unless  the  capital  is  an  essential  part  of 
the  word.  The  pupils  may  correct  each  other's  papers  occa- 
sionally, but  too  much  observation  of  incorrect  spelling  is 
not  without  its  effect  in  blurring  the  mental  image  just  re- 
ferred to  as  being  so  helpful  in  producing  correct  spelling. 

[137] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Study  of  spelling.  It  is  essential  to  produce  as  earnest 
study  as  possible,  but  what  children  need  more  are  proper 
ways  of  study.  The  teacher  is  a  very  necessary  factor  in 
spelling  study,  and  she  should  study  the  lesson  with  the 
children  as  often  as  may  be  —  at  any  rate  till  she  has  estab- 
lished the  right  habits.  It  is  well  to  pronounce  all  the 
words  first,  distinctly  and  emphatically,  otherwise  the  child 
may  fix  a  bad  pronunciation  by  his  very  eagerness  to  learn. 
The  pupil  should  be  trained  to  select  the  hardest  words 
and  study  those,  not  waste  himself  on  what  he  already 
knows.  Spelling  is  so  largely  a  matter  of  the  eye  as  well 
as  ear  that  the  flash  method  of  study  is  good — having  the 
class  look  at  a  word  for  an  instant  then  close  their  books 
and  think  how  it  looks,  after  which  some  child  should 
spell  it  aloud.  The  pupils  may  also  spell  the  words  from 
the  book  in  concert,  closing  the  book  after  each  word  and 
spelling  as  many  times  as  the  teacher  thinks  best,  or  they 
may  spell  by  rows  or  singly.  Through  all  this  work  the 
teacher  should  keep  them  watching ;  thinking;  using  judg- 
ment as  to  amount  of  study  needed,  as  to  relations  of 
sounds;  noticing  little  tricks  for  help,  like  finding  "a  rat" 
in  ' '  separate  "  or  "  lie  "  in  "  believe. ' '  Certain  rules  for  spell- 
ing may  well  be  taught ;  as,  i  before  e  except  after  c,  or 
when  sounded  like  a  as  in  ""neighbor"  or  '"weigh."  Some 
of  the  others  are  the  rules  for  changing  y  to  i  before  an 
added  syllable  ;  for  dropping  silent  e  at  the  end  of  a  word, 
before  the  addition  of  a  syllable  ;  for  doubling  consonants 
before  additions,  if  the  consonant  is  preceded  by  a  single 
vowel  in  words  of  one  syllable.  Only  the  simplest  rules 
should  be  taken.  They  are  easily  learned  at  this  stage, 
long  remembered,  and  occasionally  used.    Sometimes  the 

[138] 


SPELLING 

children  may  be  given  slips  of  paper  and  complete  their 
study  by  writing  the  words  as  many  times  as  seem  neces- 
sary to  fix  them  in  mind,  not  the  same  number  of  times 
for  each  word. 

Spelling  in  connection  with  other  lessons.  Spelling  as 
an  isolated  subject  is  being  given  less  time  in  schools, 
though  much  may  be  said  in  favor  of  straight  spelling  les- 
sons. It  is  receiving  greater  attention  as  a  handmaid  in 
other  subjects.  This  emphasis  is  a  very  good  thing.  Learn- 
ing to  spell  words  because  they  are  needed  in  writing, 
studying  them  for  this  purpose  before  the  writing,  and 
after  the  writing  because  of  misspelling,  will  produce  great 
improvement.  An  excellent  plan,  which  takes  very  little 
time,  is  to  select  the  most  important  words  which  have 
been  generally  misspelled  in  a  set  of  papers  and  have 
them  spelled  at  the  beginning  of  the  next  lesson  in  the 
subject.  They  should  be  only  five  or  six  in  number,  and 
the  plan  is  not  to  drill  upon  them,  absorbing  much  time, 
but  to  have  the  class  hear  them  spelled  correctly  once, 
with  attention.  Such  work  has  been  known  to  produce  a 
marked  gain  in  general  spelling  power.  It  will  be  found 
that  nearly  all  will  have  misspelled  the  same  words. 

Encouraging  spelling  interest.  Spelling  sometimes  be- 
comes so  attractive  to  children  as  to  be  almost  a  mania. 
They  wish  to  spell  everything,  and  enjoy  it  above  other 
subjects.  This  time  is  quite  apt  to  lie  somewhere  between 
the  third  and  sixth  grades.  While  this  fancy  is  on,  it 
should  be  emphasized  by  taking  even  more  than  usual 
time  for  it.  It  should  also  receive  the  approval  and  en- 
couragement of  the  teacher  and  may  be  fostered  in  many 
ways  —  by  matches,  by  starting  ideas  like  spelling  all  the 

[139] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

names  of  kitchen  utensils  or  names  of  animals,  flowers, 
or  foods.  Anything  suggesting  a  game  or  contest  will 
arouse  interest. 

The  spelling  match  is  a  device  well  calculated  to  pro- 
duce enthusiasm.  It  may  be  used  in  connection  with  both 
oral  and  written  work.  Keeping  account  of  perfect  spell- 
ing lessons,  choosing  sides,  spelling  down,  any  like  idea, 
will  stimulate  to  great  effort.  If  the  words  to  be  used  in 
a  particular  spelling  match  be  given  out  for  study  a  week 
or  so  ahead,  the  match  will  not  only  serve  to  create  in- 
terest in  spelling  generally  but  will  make  the  child  learn 
to  spell  these  special  words.  If  spelling  proceeds  with  no 
attempt  to  arouse  enthusiasm,  a  whole  class  will  often  miss 
more  than  half  the  words  day  after  day  with  little  disturb- 
ance on  their  part,  so  the  teacher  has  to  lend  herself  as 
an  incentive  in  the  matter.  Too  great  stimulus,  however, 
either  of  rank  or  contests,  leads  easily  to  cheating.  If  a 
teacher  can  produce  correct  spelling  through  a  sense  of 
its  importance  and  a  desire  to  be  a  good  speller,  it  is 
probably  better  so ;  yet  many  devices,  rightly  handled, 
will  help  in  this  way. 

Combination  of  classes.  Combinations  of  classes  for 
spelling  may  be  made  easily.  Two  classes  may  study  the 
same  words,  but  this  is  not  at  all  necessary.  In  either  oral 
or  written  spelling  recitation  two  or  three  or  more  classes 
may  work  at  the  same  time,  the  words  being  given  to  each 
alternately  in  written  work,  or,  in  oral,  the  child  to  whose 
class  it  was  assigned  for  study  being  called  upon  to  spell 
a  word.  The  teacher  may  turn  from  one  part  of  the 
speller  to  the  other  or  she  may  copy  the  words  of  the 
separate  lists  so  as  to  handle  the  work  more  easily. 

[140] 


SPELLING 

The  poor  speller.  The  teacher  should  remember  that, 
while  spelling  is  of  great  importance,  some  children  are 
bom  almost  wholly  lacking  in  the  power  to  learn  it.  Such 
children  should  be  helped  by  every  spelling  scheme  known. 
They  should  put  a  reasonable  time  on  it,  but  stress  should 
be  laid  on  simple  words.  They  should  be  taught  to  look 
carefully  at  everything  they  copy,  to  know  that  they  are 
weak  in  spelling  and  so  use  observation  and  the  dictionary 
freely.  Spelling,  though  essential,  is  not  really  vital.  The 
man  who  cannot  spell  may  be  strong  enough  in  other 
ways  to  employ  a  typewriter,  so  no  child  should  put  all 
his  time  upon  it  or  be  too  greatly  condemned  for  inability. 
Spelling  may  be  "an  accomplishment  he  cannot  afford  the 
time  to  acquire." 

REFERENCES 

BouTON.     Spelling  and  Word    Building.     University   Publishing 

Company. 
Peirce.   The  Peirce  Spellers.    Ginn  and  Company. 
Thompson.    Minimum  Essentials  (Spelling).    Ginn  and  Company. 
Ward  Reading  Manual.    Silver,  Burdett  &  Company. 


[141] 


CHAPTER  XIII 
LANGUAGE 

Early  language  work,  oral  and  incidental.  In  the  first 
few  years  of  school  life  there  is  little  time  or  need  for 
regular  language  lessons,  yet  this  time  furnishes  an  excel- 
lent opportunity  to  get  the  child  well  started  toward  a 
mastery  of  correct  oral  English.  This  is  always  of  greater 
importance  than  written  language,  since  all  the  world  talks, 
while  the  greater  part  of  it  writes  only  occasionally.  The 
purpose  of  training  in  English  is  much  better  served  by 
means  of  uninterrupted  attention  to  the  language  met 
incidentally  than  by  any  set  language  lessons. 

Ways  of  improving  English.  There  are  at  least  five 
excellent  ways  of  improving  a  child's  spoken  English,  out- 
side of  the  regular  lessons  :  (i)  the  teacher  should  use 
correct  English  herself ;  (2)  she  should  present  as  many 
good  models  as  possible  in  the  shape  of  literature  —  that 
is,  through  the  poem  and  story ;  (3)  she  should  make  the 
child  talk  as  much  as  possible ;  (4)  she  should  habitually 
correct  the  English  he  employs ;  (5)  she  should  get  him 
into  the  habit  of  watching  his  own  language  and  that  of 
other  people  to  see  what  forms  are  used  and  what  are  the 
best  ones. 

The  teacher's  English.  Few  teachers  give  the  attention 
they  ought  to  their  own  forms  of  expression.  Early  asso- 
ciations, too  much  hearing  of  poor  or  incorrect  forms, 

[142] 


LANGUAGE 

carelessness,  laziness,  and  a  lack  of  appreciation  of  its  im- 
portance cause  the  teacher  to  present  day  by  day  to  the 
children  models  that  should  be  shunned  rather  than  copied. 
Incorrect  English  seems  to  be  contagious,  and  the  teacher 
should  fight  it  as  she  would  any  contagious  disease.  She 
should  watch  for  its  symptoms  in  herself  and  destroy  them 
as  rapidly  as  possible.  When  she  makes  a  mistake  she 
should  go  back  and  correct  it.  Observation  of  the  work 
of  many  teachers  reveals  a  surprisingly  small  percentage 
who  speak  correctly  or  notice  the  mistakes  of  others.  We 
shall  never  greatly  improve  the  language  of  our  people  till 
the  teachers  furnish  better  models. 

Presentation  of  good  models.  Children  who  read  at 
home  a  great  deal,  and  who  are  in  the  habit  of  hearing 
good  literature,  early  acquire  book  language  in  their  speech. 
This  may  be  amusing  sometimes,  but  it  is  the  foundation 
for  a  grasp  of  good  English.  It  is  perfectly  possible  to 
pick  out  from  a  school,  children  who  live  in  cultured, 
reading  homes,  just  from  their  vocabularies  and  their 
ease  and  fluency  of  expression.  Too  much  cannot  be  said 
in  favor  of  an  abundance  of  good  literature  in  school  — 
for  training  in  English  expression,  if  no  other  good  came 
from  it.  More  will  be  said  of  this  in  connection  with  the 
poem  and  story. 

Free  expression  by  pupils.  Children  do  not  talk  enough 
in  school.  They  pass  through  the  day,  week,  and  month, 
in  many  schools,  and  hardly  give  free  expression  to  a 
single  idea  couched  in  their  own  language.  They  answer 
Yes  or  No  or  a  book  sentence  to  the  questions.  The 
teacher  talks  much,  the  children  but  little.  This  is  alto- 
gether wrong.    The  purpose  of  much  of  the  talking  of 

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EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

the  teacher  should  be  to  produce  free  talking  by  the  child. 
With  little  children  the  answers  should  usually  be  given 
in  sentences.  This  will  be  somewhat  formal  work  at  first 
but  will  soon  grow  into  a  habit.  Even  this  is  not  enough. 
What  is  wanted  is  free,  spontaneous  talking  by  the  child, 
just  as  he  talks  out  of  school.  Much  rambling  will  be 
present,  but  after  free  expression  has  been  obtained,  then 
we  may  train  the  child  to  talk  to  the  point.  At  first  it  is 
not  very  necessary  that  he  stick  directly  to  the  point  at 
issue.  He  should  be  allowed  to  tell  his  long  and  round- 
about tales ;  this  may  be  looked  out  for  later.  Freedom 
of  speech  cannot  be  obtained  by  set  language  lessons,  it 
must  come  in  every  lesson.  The  morning  exercises,  the 
reading  class,  the  geography,  particularly  the  nature  lessons, 
every  place  in  the  day  in  which  the  child  forgets  himself, 
will  furnish  a  good  opportunity.  He  should  be  given  things 
to  talk  about.  They  should  be  made  so  interesting  that  he 
longs  to  tell  and  to  ask.  This  is  the  secret  of  free  speech. 
In  a  certain  school  in  which  free  talking  has  always  been 
encouraged,  new  children  find  themselves  first  in  the 
nature  lessons,  next  in  the  geography  and  history,  then  in 
the  reading.  These  subjects,  in  the  order  mentioned,  seem 
to  arouse  the  child's  interest  and  bring  him  out  of  himself. 
Little  children  are  usually  ready  enough,  but  often  a  year 
or  two  in  school  seems  to  kill  the  power  which  it  is  so 
desirable  to  develop.  If  this  plan  of  free  talking  is  con- 
sistently followed,  the  children  not  only  learn  English  but 
they  are  using  the  proper  method  of  learning  anything. 

Correction  of  pupils'  English.  The  child's  English 
should  be  corrected,  but  not  in  such  a  way  as  to  dampen 
his  ardor.    If  correction  is  begun  early  and  kept  up  as 

[144] 


LANGUAGE 

carefully  as  in  arithmetic  or  grammar,  the  pupil  learns  to 
take  it  as  a  matter  of  course.  He  should  not  be  stopped 
in  the  middle  of  a  sentence  to  correct  him,  and  the  correc- 
tion should  seem  incidental,  but  it  should  be  made  unless 
for  some  strong  reason  to  prevent  it.  It  takes  time,  and 
in  case  of  foreign  children  seems  to  get  more  than  belongs 
to  it,  but  the  foreign  children  need  English  as  much  as 
anything  and  might  as  well  be  taught  right.  If  a  teacher 
corrects  every  mistake  she  sees,  she  may  be  sure  that  many 
have  escaped  her  and  need  not  worry  for  fear  of  over- 
thoroughness.  We  need  to  know  how  to  talk.  We  are 
judged  by  our  control  of  the  English  language  more  than 
by  any  other  single  accomplishment. 

Arousing  interest  and  watchfulness.  Quite  early  in 
their  school  life  children  may  be  trained  to  watch  their 
own  speech  and  that  of  their  companions  and  to  note  the 
occurrence  of  the  poorer  forms  with  intent  to  root  them 
out.  I  have  known  children  in  third  and  fourth  grades 
to  grow  eager  to  substitute  "very"  for  "awful,"  to  use 
"'  may  "  and  "  can  "  correctly,  and  to  weed  out  expressions 
like  "we  was,"  "have  got,"  and  the  like.  It  seems  to 
them  a  sort  of  game,  and  this  is  the  time  to  establish  the 
right  form  as  a  habit. 

Exercises  to  secure  correctness.  If  one  watches  children's 
mistakes,  one  sees  that  they  group  themselves  under  com- 
paratively few  heads,  like  double  negatives,  incorrect  tense 
forms,  incorrect  use  of  the  cases  of  pronouns,  adjectives 
for  adverbs,  regular  plurals  of  irregular  nouns,  regular  past 
forms  of  irregular  verbs.  The  teacher,  having  observed 
carefully  and  marked  the  lines  of  greatest  need,  should 
plan  as  many  exercises  as  possible  to  furnish  drill  in  use 

[145] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

of  correct  forms,  since  the  only  way  to  accomplish  much 
is  to  have  the  right  expression  repeated  times  enough  to 
make  it  at  least  as  familiar  as  the  incorrect. 

A  regular  lesson  may  be  given  for  this  drill.  In  this  the 
teacher  might  distribute  small  articles  to  the  children  and 
ask  of  each,  '"  What  have  you  ?  "  The  answers  '"  I  have  a 
book,"  "  I  have  a  pencil,"  "  I  have  nothing,"  oft  repeated, 
finally  will  produce  an  impression,  and  this  may  be  strength- 
ened by  effort  on  the  teacher's  part  to  make  the  pupil 
wish  to  speak  correctly. 

There  are  many  stories,  liked  by  children,  whose  repro- 
duction will  furnish  drill  on  needed  forms.  "  The  Three 
Bears  "  may  serve  to  fix  "  been,"  "  eaten,"  "  broken,"  and 
words  ending  in  ing;  and  many  stories  give  a  chance  for 
repeated  use  of  the  past  tense  of  verbs  like  "  see,"  "  say," 
"do,"  "go,"  and  others  that  are  frequently  incorrectly  used. 

Language  games  give  an  excellent  opportunity  for  this 
work.  A  little  ingenuity  will  produce  many  of  these,  which 
may  be  used  over  and  over.  A  child  may  describe  another 
and  the  rest  may  guess  who  it  is,  the  leader  answering, 
"  No,  it  is  not  he  "  or  "Yes,  it  is  she."  Drill  on  "saw"  and 
"  have  seen"  may  be  given  by  showing  several  objects  and 
asking  of  each  child,  "What  did  you  see?"  or  "What 
have  you  seen  .-* "  In  another  good  game  the  teacher  or 
a  pupil  gives  the  present  tense  of  a  verb  and  the  one 
called  upon  gives  the  past.  This  may  be  varied  by  having 
a  sentence  given  instead  of  the  verb  alone.  An  attractive 
drill  for  past  forms  may  be  found  in  the  "  What  did  you 
do  ?  "  game.  The  pupils,  asked  the  question  one  after  an- 
other, must  answer  quickly,  "  I  brought  some  wood,"  "  I 
caught  some  fish,"  "  I  blew  a  horn,"  "  I  threw  a  ball,"  or 

[146] 


LANGUAGE 

any  similar  sentence.  Language  games  may  be  multiplied 
indefinitely  and  never  cease  to  give  pleasure,  as  well  as 
drill  in  use  of  correct  forms. 

Various  forms  of  expression.  Any  form  of  expression 
increases  the  power  for  general  expression.  Drawing,  cut- 
ting, paper  folding,  modeling,  making,  acting,  have  an 
important  part  and  should  be  employed  in  turn.  Every 
lesson  should  have  language  for  its  secondary  aim,  and  if 
this  idea  were  well  carried  out  there  might  be  less  need 
of  lessons  called  language  lessons  only. 

Written  language  work  with  lower  grades.  Written 
language  work  is  impossible  to  any  degree  in  the  first 
grade,  unnecessary  and  not  practical  in  the  second.  The 
children  have  not  grasped  the  vehicle  of  expression  suf- 
ficiently so  that  they  have  any  thought  fcH"  what  they  are 
saying.  A  little  copying  or  dictation  or  work  such  as  may 
be  taken  in  connection  with  the  writing  or  spelling  is,  at 
most,  all  that  should  be  allowed.  Even  in  the  third  grade, 
writing  as  a  means  of  expression  is  not  easy,  but  certain 
exercises  may  be  taken.  Writing  over  and  over  some  of 
the  expressions  habitually  incorrect,  —  such  as  have  been 
mentioned  above,  —  very  simple  descriptions  in  response 
to  questions  or  to  use  certain  words  in  connection  with  a 
picture,  a  brief  reproduction  of  a  very  simple  story,  put- 
ting together  nouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs  to  form  correct 
groupings,  many  exercises  like  these,  may  be  employed 
with  profit. 

Work  with  older  children.  Even  with  older  classes  the 
oral  work  should  be  in  excess  of  the  written,  though  more 
and  more  writing  may  be  called  for.  The  order  should  be 
free  writing  first,  correct  writing  later,  as  for  the  oral  work. 

[147] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

A  child  should  never  be  called  upon  to  write  until  he  has 
some  ideas.  Objects  of  nature,  the  history  or  geography 
or  reading  lesson,  may  furnish  the  starting  point.  Many 
language  books  suggest  subjects  for  study  taken  from 
nature,  art,  literature,  and  the  teacher  should  cull  freely 
from  these  and  find  others  in  the  lessons  that  come  up 
day  by  day. 

Much  of  the  written  work  may  take  the  form  of  letters, 
and  the  teacher  should  try  to  develop  the  power  to  write  a 
neat  letter  in  which  the  pupil  says  what  he  wants  to  say, 
connectedly  and  simply.  The  children  may  also  write 
original  stories  or  imaginary  descriptions,  but  work  for 
which  material  is  provided  is  by  far  the  best. 

Pupils  may  be  helped  in  their  writing  by  questions  or 
outlines,  though  what  is  called  free  writing  should  never 
be  omitted.  Much  oral  work,  helpful  for  writing,  may  be 
done  in  preparation  of  outlines,  study  of  paragraphs,  mak- 
ing of  topics,  and  discussion  of  typical  papers.  Corrected 
papers  may  be  copied,  but  too  much  copying  is  harmful, 
and  when  she  employs  it,  the  teacher  should  satisfy  herself 
that  it  is  accomplishing  the  improvement  sought.  In  after 
life  not  much  time  is  given  to  copying  written  material, 
and  the  point  to  be  aimed  at  is  the  making  a  fairly  pre- 
sentable paper  at  the  first  draft.  Training  a  child  to  go 
over  his  paper  by  himself  with  a  definite  aim  for  im- 
provement is  better  than  too  great  dependence  upon  the 
copying  idea. 

Work  leading  to  technical  grammar.  Technical  gram- 
mar should  be  saved  for  higher  grades,  yet  certain  things 
that  a  child  needs  for  daily  use  must  be  classed  under  the 
head  of  grammar,  so  we  must  have  some  work  with  the 

[148] 


LANGUAGE 

side  of  language  that  leads  to  grammar  as  well  as  with 
the  side  that  leads  to  composition.  Drill  should  be  given 
on  the  parts  of  a  sentence,  on  parts  of  speech,  comparison 
of  adjectives,  parts  of  verbs.  Much  of  this  can  be  taught 
incidentally,  and  much  of  it  should  be  taken  in  the  form 
of  games,  contests,  and  the  like. 

Technical  grammar.  In  the  higher  elementary  grades 
some  work  has  still  to  be  done  in  grammar,  though  we  are 
outgrowing  the  notion  that  a  child  must  have  mastered  all 
its  intricacies  before  the  high  school.  Technical  grammar 
is,  in  fact,  ceasing  to  be  an  elementary  school  study.  The 
children  are  not  at  the  age  when  the  interest  and  ability 
for  mastering  the  difficulties  of  grammar  are  as  promi- 
nent as  they  will  be  later,  and  most  of  what  is  needed 
may  be  acquired  through  the  language  work.  If  it  is 
retained  in  a  grammar-school  course,  the  work  should 
be  confined  to  recognition  of  parts  of  speech  with  their 
simpler  properties,  classifications,  and  relations ;  a  speak- 
ing acquaintance  with  phrases  and  clauses  and  their  work  ; 
and  the  analysis  of  easy  sentences.  Having  an  idea  of  the 
value  of  language  —  with  the  habit  of  looking  and  think- 
ing carefully  before  stating  language  facts  —  should  count 
as  a  fair  degree  of  merit  in  estimating  a  student's  ability 
in  English  grammar,  at  high-school  entrance. 

In  teaching  the  various  steps  in  such  work  in  grammar 
as  is  retained,  all  new  things  should  be  approached,  as  in 
arithmetic,  concretely  by  illustration ;  then  should  come  the 
general  idea,  then  the  application.  These  steps  should  be 
followed  not  only  in  taking  the  subjects  for  the  first  time  but 
on  later  approach,  when  the  children  are  more  mature  and 
better  able  to  discriminate  and  generalize.  The  application 

[  149  ] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

should  be  frequent  and  strongly  made  and  should  not  be 
confined  to  work  presented  in  class.  Class  work  should 
in  some  way  accomplish  the  end  of  making  the  pupil  feel 
that  the  rules  and  principles  taken  in  class  do  not  cease  to 
exist  when  that  class  is  excused,  yet  a  teacher  should  not 
be  too  exacting  regarding  knowledge  of  grammar,  nor  too 
discouraged  or  impatient  if  the  child  seems  dull.  Power 
for  abstract  logical  reasoning  comes  late.  A  child  is  so 
occupied  physically  that  he  lacks  force  for  decisive  work 
at  the  age  of  the  eighth  or  ninth  grade,  and  his  answers 
are  more  often  careless  than  ignorant.  A  noun  is  so  un- 
like a  verb  that  when  a  pupil  thinks  "  noun  "  and  says 
"  verb  "  he  seems  uncommonly  stupid.  If  grammar  must 
be  had  while  children  are  immature,  the  pupil  should  at 
least  be  judged  by  what  he  is  on  his  best  day  rather  than 
by  what  he  is  on  his  worst. 

It  remains  to  treat  of  three  subjects  for  formal  language 
lessons,  to  be  used  with  all  grades,  —  the  picture,  the  poem, 
and  the  story. 

REFERENCES 

Arnold.    With  Pencil  and  Pen.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Barbour.    Teaching  of  Enghsh  Grammar:   History  and  Method. 

Ginn  and  Company. 
Bryce   and    Spauldixg.     Aldine    Language    Books.     Newson  & 

Company. 
Bryce  and  Spaulding.  Manual  for  Teachers,  for  Aldine  Language 

Books.    Newson  &  Company. 
Charters.    Teaching  the  Common  Branches.    Houghton  Mifflin 

Company. 
COOLEY.     Language   Lessons  from  Literature.    Houghton   Mifflin 

Company. 
King.    Language  Games.    Educational  Publishing  Company. 

[150] 


LANGUAGE 

Maxwell,  Johnston,  and  Barnum.  Speaking  and  Writing. 
American  Book  Company. 

Perdue.  Language  through  Nature,  Literature,  and  Art.  Rand 
McNally  &  Company. 

SouTHwoRTH  and  GoDDARD.  Elements  of  Composition  and  Gram- 
mar.   Benj.  H.  Sanborn  &  Co. 

Thompson.    Minimum  Essentials  (Language).    Ginn  and  Company. 


[151J 


CHAPTER  XIV 
THE  PICTURE 

Introduction.  The  picture  deserves  treatment  under 
three  heads  —  Drawing,  where  it  appears  as  a  work  of 
art ;  Apparatus,  in  which  it  figures  in  a  most  important 
rdle,  since  it  furnishes  such  an  easy  and  valuable  means 
for  illustration  and  explanation ;  and  Language,  since  it 
presents  such  good  material  to  serve  as  subjects  for  lessons. 
It  is  in  its  relation  to  language  chiefly  that  it  is  considered 
in  this  chapter,  though  reference  may  be  made  to  its  place 
in  other  lines. 

Treatment.  Many  language  lessons  may  center  about 
a  picture.  The  lesson  may  include  the  study  of  the  picture 
as  a  work  of  art  or  may  deal  more  particularly  with  the 
story  it  has  to  tell.  In  such  study  the  children  should  be 
made  to  talk  freely,  and  their  English  should  be  carefully 
corrected.  Direct  attempts  at  composition  may  be  made  in 
connection  with  this  work.  A  picture  may  be  merely  de- 
scribed and  talked  about,  or  it  may  be  made  the  basis  of 
an  imaginary  story.  With  little  children,  the  first  is  the 
more  customary  treatment.  The  teacher  should  try  to  lead 
them  from  a  mere  enumeration  of  the  things  they  see  in 
the  picture  to  a  connected  statement  of  the  relation  of  the 
things  to  each  other.  "  I  see  a  man,"  '"  I  see  a  horse," 
should  be  changed  to,  "  In  the  picture  is  a  man  who  is 
putting  a  shoe  on  a  horse.    He  holds  one  of  the  horse's 

[152] 


THE  PICTURE 

feet  up  to  put  on  the  shoe."  Gradually  the  child  will  be- 
come able  to  give  a  connected  and  vivid  description  of 
anything  seen  either  in  a  picture  or  elsewhere. 

It  becomes  plain  that  the  best  picture  for  language  pur- 
poses is  one  that  contains  a  story.  This  is  true,  no  matter 
how  it  is  to  be  treated.  Many  pictures  do  not  contain 
stories,  but  many  of  the  best  run  over  with  suggestion. 
As  the  child  gets  older  he  may  be  trained  to  make  up 
rather  pretty  or  virile  stories  about  the  pictures  presented. 
He  may  name  the  people,  imagine  adventures,  and  add 
the  help  of  his  creative  imagination  to  the  development  of 
his  observation  and  expression.  Much  may  be  done  to 
train  a  child's  ethical  sense  and  feeling  for  the  beautiful 
as  a  sort  of  by-product  of  the  English  lesson  —  though 
the  English  should  be  made  the  by-product. 

Sources.  Though  care  is  needed  in  the  selection  of 
pictures,  they  are  not  difficult  to  obtain.  Those  hung  on 
the  walls  for  decoration  should  form  the  subjects  of  lessons, 
since  the  pupil  gazes  at  them  day  after  day,  and  his  appre- 
ciation of  them  may  be  hastened  by  a  study  of  them  under 
the  guidance  of  the  teacher.  For  class  work  many  small 
ones  are  obtainable.  The  Brown  and  Perry  companies 
have  done  real  service  in  presenting  cheap  copies  of  good 
pictures.  Illustrations  from  magazines  are  often  exactly 
what  is  needed,  and  some  of  the  advertising  pictures,  par- 
ticularly those  of  the  soaps  and  cereals,  are  attractive  and 
made  by  good  illustrators.  Calendars  that  furnish  good  pic- 
tures are  often  to  be  found.  If  a  teacher  keeps  always  on 
the  watch  and  has  high  ideals  which  she  turns  upon  low 
places,  she  may  get  material  enough.  The  children's  joy 
will  be  abundant  pay  for  the  exertion.   In  one  school,  where 

[153] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

frequent  lessons  are  given  upon  bunches  of  pictures,  which 
the  children  look  at  and  express  opinions  about  in  free 
English  which  the  teacher  aims  to  make  correct,  the  little 
hands  grasp  the  passing  picture  and  hold  it  for  a  last,  fond 
look.  Funny  things  bring  smiles  of  appreciation.  Con- 
demnation as  well  as  praise  is  freely  bestowed,  and  the 
children  are  growing  into  a  knowledge  and  taste  that  scorn 
the  Sunday  comic  supplement,  and,  in  gradually  improving 
English,  they  express  love  for  the  good. 

Use  in  connection  with  written  work.  In  addition  to 
oral  work  in  class,  pictures  may  help  greatly  in  connection 
with  the  written  work  of  the  pupils.  The  making  of  book- 
lets has  grown  into  much  prominence  in  many  schools. 
These  booklets  may  contain  a  single  poem  or  reproduced 
story,  or  specimens  of  the  work  of  an  entire  term  or  year 
may  be  included.  Good  pictures  in  black  and  white  or  in 
color  may  be  cut  from  various  sources  and  mounted  to 
illustrate  the  work  or  decorate  the  covers.  In  the  same 
way  any  written  paper  of  a  pupil  may  be  illustrated  or 
adorned  by  use  of  larger  or  smaller  pictures.  The  thought- 
ful teacher  will  think  of  many  ways  in  which  the  picture 
may  contribute  to  the  language  development. 

REFERENCES 

Cyr.    Graded  Art  Readers.    Ginn  and  Company. 
HoYT.  The  World's  Painters  and  their  Pictures.  Ginn  and  Company. 
Pictures.    Perry  Pictures  Company,  Boston. 
Pictiares.    G.  P.  Brown,  Beverly,  Mass. 

Wilson.    Picture  Study  in  Elementary  Grades.    The  Macmillan 
Company. 


[154] 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE  POEM 

Value  of  poem  study.  All  literature  consists  mainly  of 
poems  and  stories.  She  who  teaches  familiarity  with  good 
poems  and  appreciation  of  them  has  done  much  to  widen 
the  child's  horizon,  furnish  pleasure  for  dull  moments, 
create  an  appreciation  of  the  beauties  of  nature,  develop 
the  ethical  sense,  and  supply  a  means  of  comfort  in  hours 
of  trouble.  No  child,  taken  young  enough,  can  fail  to  be 
trained  to  a  fondness  for  poetry.  Poems  should  not  be  re- 
garded as  frills.  They  are  not.  They  directly  teach  many 
things  ;  they  occupy  the  time  and  thought  of  many  of  our 
greatest  scholars ;  they  are  of  more  importance  than  a 
large  number  of  our  so-called  practical  subjects.  From  the 
standpoint  of  English  study  they  do  a  great  deal  to  broaden 
a  child's  vocabulary,  to  increase  his  knowledge  of  arrange- 
ment of  words,  his  pleasure  in  their  harmony,  and  his 
understanding  of  grammatical  constructions.  The  poem 
may  be  taken  in  many  places  in  the  school  program,  but 
there  is  no  logical  reason  why  one  may  not  let  it  occupy 
certain  of  the  periods  directly  assigned  to  language  lessons. 

Selection  and  sources.  The  teacher  should  be  guided  in 
her  selection  by  the  needs  and  tastes  of  her  class.  She 
who  tries  to  arouse  a  class  of  hardy,  lusty  boys  to  an  in- 
terest in  poetry  through  one  of  Alice  Gary's  poems  is 
making  a  mistake  and  will  defeat  her  own  ends.    They 

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EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

should  be  given  "The  Cloud,"  "Sheridan's  Ride,"  "Song 
of  Marion's  Men,"  "A  Song  of  the  Sea,"  "A  Christmas 
Carmen,"  "  One  Hoss  Shay,"  something  with  rhythm, 
swing,  and  dash  that  will  take  the  boys  off  their  feet, 
or  something  to  touch  their  sense  of  humor.  Often  the 
roughest  boys,  after  they  are  trained  a  little,  will  have  the 
keenest  appreciation  of  the  simple,  gentle,  and  beautiful. 
Usually  the  teacher  does  best  work  with  that  which  she 
herself  likes,  but  she  may  grow  to  like  something  that  did 
not  at  first  appeal  to  her. 

The  subjects  being  studied,  the  time  of  year,  and  many 
such  things  should  be  taken  into  consideration,  since  in- 
creased interest  is  often  aroused  in  this  way,  but  a  poem 
should  never  be  taught  for  the  single  reason  that  it  corre- 
lates with  the  work.  No  rule  can  be  given  for  suitability 
to  age.  Some  poems  are  good  for  little  children,  others 
for  larger  ones,  many  seem  suited  to  all  ages.  No  harm  is 
done  if  pupils  sometimes  learn  a  poem  a  little  beyond 
them.  They  will  grow  to  greater  appreciation  instead  of 
tiring  of  it.  Several  short  poems  will  accomplish  more 
than  one  very  long  one.  Children  like  variety,  and  weary 
of  a  really  beautiful  thing  if  it  is  too  long  continued. 
Many  of  the  longer  poems  should  be  read  to  the  children, 
however,  and  many  more  suggested  for  out-of-school  read- 
ing or  learning. 

Usually  the  standard  poets  will  contribute  all  that  are 
necessary.  Selection  may  be  made  from  Longfellow,  Tenny- 
son, Whittier,  Bryant,  Wordsworth,  Field,  Stevenson,  Jack- 
son, and  Larcom  and  countless  others.  There  are  many 
excellent  collections,  like  "  Open  Sesame,"  "  Nature  in 
Verse,"    "  Poetry  of   the    Seasons,"   "  Land   of    Song," 

[156] 


THE  POEM 

"  Poems  Every  Child  Should  Know,"  and  the  teacher 
would  do  well  to  get  access  to  as  many  of  these  as  possi- 
ble. School  readers  and  language  books  present  some  ex- 
cellent material.  Many  things  may  be  culled  from  papers 
and  magazines,  but  these  sources  present  some  less  valu- 
able poems  and  so  should  be  scanned  with  care. 

The  best  book  for  the  teacher  is  her  own  poetry  book  — 
a  blank  book  of  considerable  breadth,  to  accommodate  the 
lines,  but  not  too  large  to  handle  easily.  In  this  may  be 
copied  the  poems  that  please  her.  Such  a  book  soon  grows 
to  be  dearer  to  a  teacher  than  the  best  volume  ever  pub- 
lished. It  takes  little  room,  may  be  always  at  hand,  and 
may  be  filled  in  odd  moments. 

Preparation  for  teaching.  The  poem  once  selected,  the 
next  thing  is  to  prepare  one's  self  to  teach  it.  The  first 
step  is  to  learn  the  poem.  This  gives  the  teacher  greater 
appreciation  of  its  merits,  makes  her  feel  it  more.  It 
leaves  her  free  to  watch  the  class^  during  the  teaching, 
and  so  brings  her  into,  better  harmony  with  them.  It  adds 
to  her  dignity  and  power,  makes  her  seem  superior  to  the 
learners.  It  also  acquaints  her  beforehand  with  the  diffi- 
culties, so  that  she  may  the  better  meet  them.  The  rest 
of  her  work  of  preparation  is  to  think  out  ways  of  explana- 
tion of  words  and  phrases  and  to  get  her  preparatory  dis- 
cussion in  order.  The  purpose  of  such  discussion  is  to  get 
her  class  into  the  mood  for  learning  and  produce  a  sym- 
pathetic state  of  mind,  and  it  may  be  done  in  as  many 
different  ways  as  there  are  poems. 

The  teaching.  When  the  teaching  time  comes,  the  work 
should  be  introduced  by  this  discussion  to  secure  sym- 
pathy. Then  the  poem  should  be  repeated  by  the  teacher, 

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EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

usually  the  whole  of  it,  though  if  it  is  exciting  and  has  a 
story  in  it,  giving  it  stanza  by  stanza  may  be  the  best  way. 
This  repetition  being  over,  and  any  resulting  discussion, 
the  teacher  may  say  the  first  stanza  again,  then  discuss  it 
for  meanings  —  the  purpose  being  not  to  pick  it  to  pieces 
unduly  but  to  surely  comprehend  it.  Then  it  may  be  said 
again  by  teacher,  then  by  teacher  and  class  as  many  times 
as  is  necessary  for  learning.  As  the  children's  voices  grow 
more  assured  the  teacher's  should  grow  less  and  less  promi- 
nent, until  they  are  saying  it  by  themselves.  This  stanza 
should  be  repeated  until  surely  known,  then  the  second 
should  be  taught  independently.  At  its  close  the  two  may 
be  said  together.  With  the  youngest  children,  the  poem 
may  have  to  be  taught  a  line  or  two  at  a  time  instead  of 
by  stanzas.  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  first  object  in 
all  poem  study  is  to  train  the  child  to  feel  and  love  the 
beautiful  in  literature,  so  a  poem  should  never  be  so  over- 
analyzed  as  to  lose  sight  of  this  aim.  Many  poems  should 
be  presented  to  the  pupils  with  no  analytical  study  what- 
ever, but  those  selected  for  this  use  should  be  simple 
enough  for  the  children  to  understand  as  a  whole. 

Recently,  interesting  results  have  been  obtained  by  teach- 
ing poems  as  wholes,  the  entire  poem  being  repeated  over 
and  over,  and  the  pupils,  as  rapidly  as  they  are  able,  join- 
ing with  the  teacher  in  the  repetition. 

Often  it  is  well  to  let  the  children  learn  poems  by  pre- 
senting them  to  the  eye  as  well  as  the  ear.  The  results 
are  quicker,  and  longer  poems  may  be  handled  in  this  way. 
They  may  be  presented  on  the  blackboard,  or  use  may  be 
made  of  the  brown-paper  chart  and  rubber  pen  or  of  the 
stamping  outfit  for  printing. 

[158] 


THE  POEM 

Reproduction.  It  is  a  good  idea  to  have  the  class  repro- 
duce the  poem  in  writing  if  the  children  are  old  enough. 
This  helps  to  fix  the  words,  furnishes  drill  in  writing  poetry 
correctly,  and  often  uncovers  wrong  interpretation  to  the 
teacher's  eyes.  With  younger  classes,  if  the  teaching  has 
been  through  the  ear  alone,  the  last  word  of  each  line  may 
be  put  upon  the  board  as  a  guide  in  writing.  All  words 
which  might  prove  troublesome  should  be  placed  upon 
the  board  in  class,  though  they  may  be  erased  before  the 
writing  by  the  children  if  it  seems  best. 

Manner  of  reciting.  The  voice  of  the  class  should  not 
be  too  loud.  Poetry  often  needs  strength,  but  more  fre- 
quently it  is  feeling  that  is  lacking.  A  loud  voice  disturbs 
the  other  pupils,  and  sweeter  tones  are  usually  what  is 
needed.  Much  attention  should  be  given  to  expression. 
The  old-time  concert  reading  in  schools  may  be  replaced 
by  concert  repetition  of  poems  and  all  the  good  result- 
ing from  such  reading  be  obtained  in  this  way.  Concert 
recitation  is  usually  better  for  poem  work  than  individual 
repetition.  Even  if  all  children  do  not  get  the  poem 
learned  equally  well,  the  feeling  is  there,  which  is  the 
main  thing. 

The  teacher's  chief  aim  in  poetry  study  should  be  to 
make  the  children  love  poetry,  but  there  should  be  sec- 
ondary aims,  looking  toward  growth  in  general  knowledge 
and  the  development  of  good  English.  The  following 
poem  has  been  selected  for  illustration.  It  is  used  by  per- 
mission of  the  author,  Mrs.  Mary  Austin,  and  of  the 
Century  Company,  publishers  of  St.  Nicholas,  in  which 
the  poem  appeared.  Thanks  are  here  extended  for  the 
privilege. 

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EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

THE  ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  SHEEP 

The  red  deer  loves  the  chaparral, 

The  hawk  the  wind-rocked  pine, 

The  ouzel  haunts  the  rills  that  race 

The  cafion's  steep  incline ; 

But  the  wild  sheep  from  the  battered  rocks, 

Sure  foot  and  fleet  of  hmb, 

Gets  up  to  see  the  stars  go  by 

Along  the  mountain  rim. 

For  him  the  sky-built  battlements, 
For  him  the  cliff  and  scar, 
For  him  the  deep-walled  chasms 
Where  the  roaring  rivers  are ; 
The  gentian-flowered  meadowlands. 
The  tamarack  slope  and  crest, 
Above  the  eagle's  screaming  brood. 
Above  the  wild  wolf's  quest. 

When  in  the  riot  of  the  storms 

The  snow-flowers  blossom  fair, 

The  cattle  get  them  to  the  plain. 

The  howlers  to  the  lair. 

The  shepherd  tends  his  foolish  flocks 

Along  the  mountain's  hem  ; 

But  free  and  far  the  wild  sheep  are, 

And  God  doth  shepherd  them. 

Mary  Austin,  St  Nicholas,  September,  1900 

This  might  be  introduced  in  several  ways  —  by  talk  of 
the  different  haunts  of  animals  and  why  they  like  to  live 
in  those  places,  or  by  a  discussion  of  the  mountains,  and 
the  animals  and  various  phenomena  one  might  find  there, 
or  through  any  such  conversation  to  get  the  child  into  the 
right  mood. 

The  poem  calls  for  different  voice,  from  the  merely  de- 
scriptive at  first  to  the  full  tones  of  the  second  stanza  and 

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THE  POEM 

the  reverent  tone  of  the  end.  It  is  full  of  feeling  and  vigor. 
It  well  illustrates  the  power  of  poems  to  increase  general 
information  and  cultivate  thought  and  appreciation. 

The  following  are  suggestive  questions  : 

Do  you  know  the  meaning  of  "chaparral"  or  why  the  red 
deer  loves  it  ?  Can  you  see  the  close,  dark  shelter  and  feel 
the  perfect  motion  of  that  wind-rocked  pine  ?  What  is  an 
ouzel  ?  What  does  "  to  haunt "  mean  ?  What  is  a  rill  ? 
Why  does  the  ouzel  haunt  the  rills  ?  What  is  a  canon  ? 
Where  in  a  canon  are  the  rills  found  ?  Why  does  the  poet 
say  they  "  race  "  the  incline  ?  Why  is  the  word  "  incline  " 
fitting  ?  What  do  you  know  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  sheep .? 
Is  it  different  from  the  Rocky  Mountain  goat  we  hear 
about,  or  are  the  terms  simply  used  carelessly  ?  Why  are 
the  rocks  called  "'  battered  "  .?  What  does  "  sure  foot  and 
fleet  of  limb  "  have  to  do  with  the  sheep's  selection  of  his 
home  ?  Where  does  the  sheep  sleep  ?  Why  are  the  stars 
spoken  of  as  "  going  by  "  ?  What  is  the  mountain  rim  ? 
What  is  the  mountain  hem  ?  Why  are  these  good  terms  ? 
How  should  you  feel  to  be  in  the  sheep's  place  at  night, 
watching  the  sky  and  the  stars  and  feeling  safe  ? 

Why  are  the  rocks  spoken  of  as  "  battlements  "  ?  Why 
"sky-built"?  What  is  a  cliff ?  What  is  a  scar?  What  is  a 
chasm?  What  made  those  "deep- walled  chasms  "  ?  Where 
are  the  "  roaring  rivers  "  ?  What  makes  them  roar  ?  What 
have  the  rills  before  spoken  of  to  do  with  the  rivers  ?  Did 
you  know  there  were  "  gentian-flowered  meadowlands  "  in 
this  locality  ?  Why  the  tamarack  rather  than  the  elm  and 
maple  ?  What  is  a  crest  ?  Had  you  thought  of  the  sheep 
as  being  above  the  eagle's  nest  ?  Why  "  screaming  brood  "  ? 
What  is  a  quest  ?    Why  is  the  sheep  safe  from  the  wolf's 

[i6i] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

quest  ?  What  difference  is  there  in  the  animals  found  at 
different  mountain  heights  ? 

Why  "riot  of  the  storms"?  Is  it  meant  that  the  snow- 
flakes  are  hke  stars,  or  are  there  really  "  snow-flowers  "  ? 
Why  do  the  cattle  go  to  the  plain  in  a  storm  ?  What  are 
"  howlers  "  ?  What  is  a  lair  ?  Why  do  the  sheep  stay  on 
the  mountain  height  in  the  storm  ?  What  does  "  foolish  " 
mean  in  this  connection  ?  Do  you  feel  a  thrill  of  freedom 
at  "  free  and  far  the  wild  sheep  are  "  ?  Could  anything 
leave  a  more  beautiful,  uplifting,  moral  thought  than  the 
final  line —  "And  God  doth  shepherd  them  "  ? 

Has  not  the  child,  through  such  a  poem  as  this,  gained 
in  knowledge  of  real  things  ?  Has  he  not  acquired  new 
words  and  increased  his  power  and  desire  to  use  them 
fittingly  and  expressively  ?  Is  not  his  moral  nature  brought 
somewhat  nearer  that  perfection  for  which  we  aim  as  our 
highest  goal  in  all  instruction  ?  This  poem  is  one  among 
many.  There  is  no  limit  to  what  we  may  teach  through 
poem  study.  Shall  we  not  give  to  it  its  proper  place  in 
school  work  ? 

In  the  following  list  may  be  found  some  of  the  many 
good  poems  for  school  use  : 

The  Rock-a-By  Lady  (Field),  in  Young  and  Field's  "  Third  Reader." 
What   does    Little   Birdie    Say  ?    (Tennyson),  in  Jones's  "  Second 

Reader." 
My  Bed  is  a  Boat  (Stevenson),  in  Young  and  Field's  "Third  Reader." 
Spring  (Thaxter),  in  Young  and  Field's  "  Third  Reader." 
Suppose  (Gary),  in  Wade  and  Sylvester's  "  Third  Reader." 
Winter,  from  the  German,  in  Lovejoy's  "  Poetry  of  the  Seasons." 
The  Child's  World,  in  Lovejoy's  "  Poetry  of  the  Seasons." 
Hide  and  Seek  (Sherman),  in  Lovejoy's  "  Nature  in  Verse." 
The  Song  of  the  Bee  (Douglass),  in  Lovejoy's  "  Nature  in  Verse." 

[162] 


THE  POEM 

Violets  (Moultrie),  in  Blodgett's  "Third  Reader"  and  in  "Open 

Sesame." 
The  Bluebird  (Miller),  in  Blodgett's  "  Third  Reader." 
Winter  in  the  Sierras  (Austin),  in  St.  Nicholas,  December,  1901. 
My  Shadow  (Stevenson),  in  Young  and  Field's  "  Third  Reader." 
A  Gaelic  Cradle  Song,  in  Shute's  "  Land  of  Song,"  Volume  I. 
The  Land  of  Story  Books  (Stevenson). 

Seven  Times  One  (Ingelow),  in  Young  and  Field's  "Third  Reader." 
The  Night  Wind  (Field). 

One,  Two,  Three  (Bunner),  in  Young  and  Field's  "Third  Reader." 
The  Lost  Doll  (Kingsley),  in  Wade  and  Sylvester's  "Third  Reader." 
Japanese  Lullaby  (Field). 

The  Flag  (Macy),  in  Elson's  "  Grammar  School  Reader." 
March  (Wordsworth). 

September  (Jackson),  in  Young  and  Field's  "  Fourth  Reader." 
October's  Bright  Blue  Weather  (Jackson). 
Wynken,  Blynken,  and  Nod  (Field),  in  Young  and  Field's  "  Third 

Reader." 
Ho,  for  Slumberland  (Rexford),  in  "  Nature  in  Verse." 
Columbus  (Miller),  in  "  Poems  of  American  History  "  (Stevenson). 
A  Little  Breeze,  in  "  Normal  Third  Reader." 
The  Year 's  at  the  Spring,  from  "  Pippa  Passes  "  (Browning). 
The  Village  Blacksmith  (Longfellow). 
The  Brook  (Tennyson),  in  Jones's  "  Fourth  Reader." 
Whichever  Way  the  Wind  doth  Blow  (Mason),  in  Bartlett's  "  First 

Steps  in  English." 
A  Child's  Thought  of  God  (Mrs.  Browning),  in  Wade  and  Sylvester's 

"  Fourth  Reader." 
The  Bluebird  (Rexford),  in  Lovejoy's  "  Poetry  of  the  Seasons." 
The  Wind  and  the  Moon  (Macdonald),  in  Cyr's  "  Fourth  Reader." 
Robert  of  Lincoln  (Bryant),  in  Young  and  Field's  "  Fourth  Reader." 
At  Thanksgiving  (Larcom). 
The  Children's  Hour  (Longfellow). 
Children  (Longfellow). 
Song  of  Marion's  Men  (Bryant),  in  Gayley  and  Flaherty's  "  Poetrj 

of  the  People." 
The  Sandpiper  (Thaxter),  in  Young  and  Field's  "  Fourth  Reader." 
The  Landing  of  the  Pilgrims  (Hemans),  in  Cyr's  "Third  Reader." 

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EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

The  Legend  of  the  Maple  (Ogden),  in  Stone  and  Fickett's  "  Trees 

in  Prose  and  Poetry." 
The  Rocky  Mountain  Sheep  (Austin),  in  Si.  Nicholas,  September, 

1900, 
A  Song  of  the  Sea  (Procter),  in  "  Land  of  Song,"  Volume  IL 
The  Arrow  and  the  Song  (Longfellow). 
One  Butterfly  (Larcom). 
Barbara  Frietchie  (Whittier),  in  Gayley  and  Flaherty's  "  Poetry  of 

the  People." 
The  Mayflowers  (Whittier). 

The  Bugle  Song  (Tennyson),  in  Cyr's  "  Fourth  Reader." 
Down  to  Sleep  (Jackson). 
The  Builders  (Longfellow). 
The  Fishermen  (Whittier). 
Paul  Revere's  Ride  (Longfellow). 
Just  be  Glad  (Riley). 

Concord  Hymn  (Emerson),  in  Jones's  "  Fourth  Reader." 
Warren's  Address   (Pierpont),   in   Hyde's   "  School    Speaker    and 

Reader," 
The  Com  Song  (Whittier). 
Home-Thoughts  from  Abroad  (Browning). 
The  Trailing  Arbutus  (Whittier). 
The  Coast  Guard  (Miller),  in  Cyr's  "  Fourth  Reader." 
The  King  (Riley). 
The  Three  Kings  (Longfellow). 
Centennial  Hymn  (Whittier),  in  Gayley  and  Flaherty's  "  Poetry  of 

the  People." 
Opportunity  (Sill),  in  Jones's  "  Fifth  Reader." 
Violets  (Larcom). 
Our  State  (Whittier). 
The  Brook  and  the  Wave  (Longfellow). 
Daffodils  (Wordsworth),  in  Blodgett's  "  Fifth  Reader." 
Autumn  (Longfellow). 

Recessional  (Kipling),  in  Cyr's  "  Fifth  Reader." 
Ring  out,  Wild  Bells  (Tennyson),  in  Bellamy  and  Goodwin's  "  Open 

Sesame,"  Volume  HL 
The  Chambered  Nautilus  (Holmes),  in  Jones's  "  Fifth  Reader." 
Spring  (Timrod),  in  Cyr's  "  Fourth  Reader." 

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THE  POEM 

The  Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade  (Tennyson),  in  Jones's  "  Fifth 

Reader." 
Abraham  Lincoln  (Bryant),  in  Gayley  and  Flaherty's  "  Poetry  of  the 

People." 
Laus  Deo  (Whittier). 

The  Christmas  Silence  (Deland),  in  Lovejoy's  "  Nature  in  Verse." 
The  Shepherds  in  Judea  (Austin),  in  St.  Nicholas,  December,  1900. 
Christmas  Bells  (Longfellow). 
A  Christmas  Carmen  (Whittier). 
The  Birth  of  Christ  (Tennyson),  in  Bellamy  and  Goodwin's  "  Open 

Sesame,"  Volume  IIL 
A   Christmas   Carol  (Mulock),   in  Bellamy  and  Goodwin's  "  Open 

Sesame,"  Volume  L 
O  Little  Town  of  Bethlehem  (Brooks),  in  any  church  hymnal. 
Christ  and  the  Little  Ones  (Gill),  in  Whittier's  "  Child  Life." 
The  Cloud  (Shelley). 
Spring  in  the  Valley  (Austin),  in  St.  Nicholas,  May,  1 903. 

REFERENCES 

Approved  Selections  for  Supplementary  Reading  and  Memorizing. 
Eight  small  volumes.    Hinds,  Noble  &  Eldridge. 

Bellamy  and  Goodwin.  Open  Sesame,  Volumes  I-IIL  Ginn  and 
Company. 

Burt.  Poems  Every  Child  Should  Know.  Doubleday,  Page  & 
Company. 

Gayley  and  Flaherty.   Poetry  of  the  People.   Ginn  and  Company. 

Hazard.    Three  Years  with  the  Poets.    Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 

Hyde.    School  Speaker  and  Reader.    Ginn  and  Company. 

LovEjOY.    Nature  in  Verse.    Silver,  Burdett  &  Company. 

LovEjOY.    Poetry  of  the  Seasons.    Silver,  Burdett  &  Company. 

Montgomery.    HerGic  Ballads.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Palgrave.    Golden  Treasury.    Various  publishers. 

Shute.  Land  of  Song, Volumes  I  and  IL  Silver,  Burdett  &  Company. 

Stevenson.  Poems  of  American  History.  Houghton  Mifflin  Com- 
pany. 

Whittier.    Child  Life  in  Poetry.    Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 

Williams  and  Foster.  Selections  for  Memorizing.  Ginn  and 
Company. 

[165] 


CHAPTER  XVI 
THE  STORY 

Importance.  The  story  should  have  an  important  place 
in  school  work,  as  its  value  can  hardly  be  overestimated. 
By  means  of  it  much  information  and  inspiration  may  be 
furnished.  It  may  serve  as  a  marked  stimulus  for  general 
reading ;  it  may  increase  the  pupil's  power  of  expression  ; 
and  it  is  very  effective  as  a  means  of  elevating  ideals, 
while  beyond  most  subjects  it  furnishes  pleasure. 

Kinds  of  stories.  There  are,  of  course,  many  kinds  of 
stories  equally  good,  and  there  should  be  variety  of  selec- 
tion. Starting  with  those  of  animal  and  child  life,  which 
appeal  so  strongly  to  the  very  little  child,  one  may  arrange 
a  gradation  to  meet  the  needs  and  tastes  of  pupils  through 
the  whole  school  course.  The  wonder  and  fairy  story,  the 
folk  story,  myth,  and  fable  may  be  drawn  upon  in  turn,  to 
acquaint  the  child  with  nature's  truths,  ancient  beliefs,  or 
moral  lessons.  The  nonsense  story  and  information  story 
will  find  a  place,  and  biography  often  furnishes  the  highest 
uplift  for  adolescent  boys  and  girls. 

Sources.  The  whole  field  of  literature  may  be  drawn 
upon  for  the  right  materials.  There  are  many  collections 
of  stories  selected  by  people  well  fitted  for  the  task,  though 
many  teachers  prefer  to  do  their  own  searching,  using  more 
original  sources.  There  are  collections  of  fairy  stories, 
fables,  and  myths  in  great  number,  and  these  furnish  an 

[166] 


THE  STORY 

important  source  of  supply  for  the  young  teacher.  School 
readers  and  language  books  give  many  of  the  well-known 
classics,  but  it  is  better  not  to  use  those  from  the  children's 
regular  readers.  The  teacher  who  can  have  only  a  few 
books  may  find  her  need  met  through  some  of  the  charm- 
ing collections  of  general  stories,  like  Sarah  Cone  Bryant's 
"  How  to  Tell  Stories  to  Children,"  and  "  Stories  to  Tell 
to  Children."  The  latter  contains  more  stories  ;  the  other, 
together  with  quite  a  number  of  excellent  ones,  gives  some 
very  helpful  directions  for  using  them.  The  series  by  Eva 
March  Tappan,  The  Children's  Hour,  contains  a  large 
number  of  well-selected  stories,  carefully  grouped  as  to 
subjects  and  age. 

Characteristics  of  a  good  story.  One  usually  has  to  find 
a  good  story  through  an  intuitive  feeling  for  its  fitness, 
but  there  are  certain  characteristics  which  a  story  should 
possess  if  it  is  to  appeal  to  children.  There  needs  to  be  a 
strong  central  thought,  and  in  the  telling  this  thought 
should  be  clearly  and  strongly  emphasized,  care  being  used 
that  it  is  not  so  loaded  with  details  as  to  be  obscured.  Any 
over-embellishment  or  secondary  plots  which  weaken  the 
central  idea  should  be  omitted  in  the  telling.  There  should 
be  life  and  movement.  Some  interesting  thing  should  be 
happening  all  the  time.  The  events  should  also  be  within 
the  experience  and  interest  of  the  listener,  and  should  not 
need  to  be  much  broken  up  by  explanations.  Repetition 
is  an  attraction  too,  adding  an  element  of  expectancy 
and  recognition  which  the  child,  particularly  the  little 
child,  enjoys. 

Manner  of  treating.  Generally  a  story  should  be  told. 
The  teacher  gets  more  into  harmony  with  it,  more  in  touch 

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EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

with  the  class.  She  is  free  to  see  how  the  children  are 
taking  it,  to  bring  it  home  vividly,  to  use  herself  as  a  factor 
in  the  enjoyment.  To  be  told,  it  must  first.be  prepared. 
Preparation  to  tell  does  not  mean  learning  to  recite  it.  A 
recited  story  differs  little  from  a  read  one.  Stories  may  be 
said  to  children  dramatically  with  extremely  good  effect, 
and  this  way  should  be  used,  but  the  ordinary  teacher 
telling  a  memorized  story  makes  it  sound  very  mechanical 
and  uninteresting. 

The  first  step  in  preparation  to  tell  a  story  means  get- 
ting thoroughly  into  the  spirit  of  it,  getting  to  like  it  better, 
finding  the  heart  of  it — the  central  thought,  of  which  men- 
tion has  been  made.  After  this,  one  has  to  pick  up  the 
ideas  which  best  serve  to  increase  the  effect  of  the  main 
points,  and  think  how  to  arrange  and  express  them.  Parts 
need  to  be  learned  word  for  word.  In  some  cases  draw- 
ings, pictures,  or  illustrative  objects  add  more  attractive- 
ness. If  so,  these  need  to  be  looked  out  for  while  the 
story  is  being  prepared. 

Though  sometimes  it  is  well  to  ask  the  class  what  they 
think  happened  next,  most  stories  should  be  told  con- 
nectedly. The  telling  should  be  practiced  aloud,  if  possible, 
for  the  discovery  of  defects  in  language,  arrangement,  or 
style  of  presenting.  This  also  helps  the  teacher  to  lose  fear 
of  her  own  voice.  If  she  can  tell  a  story  well  under  these 
preliminary  conditions,  she  may  surely  make  a  success  of 
it  when  the  magnetism  of  the  class  presence  is  added. 

Oral  reproduction.  Often  it  is  well  to  have  the  story 
reproduced  in  one  or  more  ways.  The  most  usual  way  is 
to  have  it  done  orally.  It  is  better  to  have  it  told  in  con- 
nected form  by  the  child  or  children,  but  questions  should 

[i68] 


THE  STORY 

be  employed  when  the  pupil  loses  the  thread.  To  get  the 
child  to  reproduce  in  smooth,  correct  English  is  one  object 
of  story-telling.  Fresh  from  hearing  the  story  well  told, 
he  is  apt  to  use  some  of  the  language  he  heard  and  so 
make  it  partly  his.  When  he  talks  about  what  he  thinks 
of  the  story,  he  uses  his  own  less  correct  forms.  These 
should  be  corrected,  but  the  corrections  should  not  become 
prominent  enough  to  be  upsetting.  Listening  to  beautiful 
English  is  a  factor  in  acquiring  it,  and  that  means  may  be 
relied  upon  largely  in  this  work,  though  the  other  should 
be  employed  also,  wisely.  Not  all  stories  should  be  repro- 
duced, but  reproduction  is  valuable. 

Written  reproduction.  Written  reproduction  may  be 
used,  particularly  with  older  children.  The  story  itself  will 
furnish  material  for  writing,  and  in  connection  with  it 
many  things  regarding  arrangement,  correct  expression, 
good  judgment  as  to  important  parts,  may  be  taught. 
Many  attractive  papers  may  be  made  if  the  children  are 
encouraged  to  illustrate  with  drawings,  or  pictures  selected 
from  other  sources. 

Other  forms  of  reproduction.  Often  with  little  children 
the  only  reproduction  may  be  a  series  of  pictures,  drawn 
or  cut,  or  the  constructing  of  objects  to  illustrate  the  points 
brought  out.  Children  take  great  delight  in  such  work. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  a  table  equipped  with  sand  and* 
another  fitted  with  scissors,  cardboard,  paints,  colored 
pencils,  and  a  varied  working  outfit,  where  may  be  con- 
structed endless  continued  stories,  illustrative  of  language 
and  other  work. 

Dramatizing.  Reference  has  been  made  already  to  one 
of  the  best  forms  of  reproduction  —  dramatizing.    Too 

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EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

great  emphasis  cannot  be  laid  upon  such  work.  Its  im- 
portance in  developing  powers  of  expression,  freedom, 
ingenuity  —  which  is  creative  imagination  and  executive 
ability  —  and  in  establishing  a  good  spirit  or  moral  tone  is 
unsurpassed.  Simple  little  helps  in  the  line  of  stage  set- 
tings and  costumes  may  be  used  if  the  children  themselves 
think  them  up,  but  often  imagination  is  better  than  objects. 
The  teacher  should  be  sure  that  the  pupils  do  the  plan- 
ning, not  herself,  though  she  may  have  to  plan  at  first  to 
show  them  how.  Great  care  should  be  used  that  the  talk- 
ing and  acting  are  spontaneous,  not  cut  and  dried  before- 
hand. To  repeat  and  act  a  memorized  story  with  parts  all 
laid  out  and  every  change  arranged  is  an  excellent  exer- 
cise, yet  it  has  not  one  tenth  the  value  that  on-the-spot 
acting  and  talking  have. 

Reading  stories.  Though  the  told  story  is  usually  better 
for  language  lessons,  there  is  value  also  in  stories  read. 
When  the  language  is  particularly  beautiful  or  fitting,  it 
is  better  to  read  the  story.  Sometimes  reading  may  be 
used  for  longer  stories  or,  occasionally,  when  the  teacher  is 
pressed  for  time.  The  plan  of  having  many  stories  told 
and  many  others  read  is  the  ideal  one,  and  the  teacher 
should  be  careful  never  to  spoil  the  story  in  the  telling  by 
using  the  English  language  carelessly,  nor  in  the  reading 
through  lack  of  the  best  work  of  which  she  is  capable. 

One  of  the  great  purposes  of  the  use  of  stories  in  school 
is  to  train  the  children  to  a  familiarity  with,  appreciation 
of,  and  fondness  for  good  literature  —  one  of  the  worthiest 
aims  of  education.  Not  only  by  her  stories  but  by  her 
whole  attitude,  her  suggestions  for  home  reading,  her  ap- 
proval of  reports  of  good  outside  reading,  by  opportunities 

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THE  STORY 

furnished  and  pathways  opened,  the  teacher  may  so  train 
the  pupil  that  the  dime  novel  and  the  trashy  romance  may 
sink  naturally  to  their  proper  place,  and  the  child's  trained 
taste  cause  him  to  seek  the  best  in  the  line  of  stories,  to 
become  an  enthusiast  for  good  literature. 

The  following  list  gives  titles  and  sources  of  some  stories 
that  have  been  tested  in  many  schools  : 

Chicken  Little,  in  Wiltse's  "  Folklore  Stories  and  Proverbs." 

The  Three  Billy  Goats  Gruff,  in  Lansing's  "  Rhymes  and  Stories." 

Three  Little  Pigs,  in  Lansing's  "  Rhymes  and  Stories." 

The  Three  Bears,  in  Wiltse's  "  Folklore  Stories  and  Proverbs." 

The  Old  Woman  and  her  Pig,  in  "  The  McCloskey  Primer." 

The  Lion  and  the  Mouse,  in  Wiltse's"  Folklore  Stories  and  Proverbs." 

The  Crow  and  the  Pitcher,  in  Stickney's  "/Esop's  Fables." 

The  Little  Pig  Brother,  in  Bryant's  "  How  to  Tell  Stories  to  Children." 

Belling  the  Cat,  in  Stickney's  ".(4isop's  Fables." 

The  Country  Mouse  and  the  City  Mouse,  in  Stickney's  "^sop's 

Fables." 
The  Cat  and  the  Parrot,  in  Bryant's  "  How  to  Tell  Stories  to  Children." 
The  Fox  and  the  Crow,  in  Jones's  "  Third  Reader." 
The  Fox  and  the  Grapes,  in  Stickney's  "yEsop's  Fables."         ^ 
The  Hare  and  the  Tortoise,  in  Stickney's  ".lEsop's  Fables." 
The  Little  Fir  Tree,  in  Stickney's  "  Andersen's  Fairy  Tales  "  (First 

Series). 
Little  Red  Riding  Hood,  in  Lansing's  "  Rhymes  and  Stories." 
The  Fox  and  the  Stork,  in  Young  and  Field's  "  Literary  Readers," 

Book  Four. 
The  Little  Red  Hen,  in  Lansing's  "  Rhymes  and  Stories." 
The  Dog  and  his  Shadow,  in  Stickney's  "^sop's  Fables." 
The  Jackal  and  the  Lion,  in  Bryant's  "  Stories  to  Tell  to  Children." 
Litde  Pink  Rose,  in  Bryant's  "  Stories  to  Tell  to  Children." 
The  Monkey  and  the  Chestnuts,  in  Serl's  "  In  Fableland." 
Raggylug,  in  Bryant's  "  How  to  Tell  Stories  to  Children." 
The  Dog  in  the  Manger,  in  Stickney's  "^Esop's  Fables." 
The  Bremen  Musicians,  in  "  Child  Life,"  Volume  H. 
The  Elves  and  the  Cobbler,  in  Lansing's  "  Fairy  Tales,"  Volume  H. 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

The  Gingerbread  Man,  in  Fassett's  "  Beacon  First  Reader," 

The  Lambikin,  in  Lansing's  "  Quaint  Old  Stories." 

The  Little  Half  Chick,  in  Fassett's  "  Beacon  First  Reader." 

The  Wolf  and  the  Kid,  in  Serl's  "  In  Fableland." 

The  Wind  and  the  Sun,  in  Stickney's  "y^sop's  Fables." 

The  Boy  who  cried  Wolf,  in  Stickney's  "^sop's  Fables." 

The  Tar  Baby  Story,  in  Young  and  Field's  "  Literary  Readers," 

Book  Four. 
Cinderella,  in  Lansing's  "  Fairy  Tales,"  Volume  L 
The  Fisherman  and  His  Wife,  in  Noyes's  "  Twilight  Stories." 
The  Golden  Touch,  in  Dillingham  and  Emerson's  "  '  Tell  It  Again ' 

Stories." 
The  Queen  Bee,  in  Wiltse's  "  Grimm's  Fairy  Tales,"  Part  I. 
The  Litde  Jackal  and  the  Alligator,  in  Bryant's  "  Stories  to  Tell  to 

Children." 
The  Pied  Piper,  in  Jones's  "  Fourth  Reader." 
The  Goose  that  laid  Golden  Eggs,  in  Stickney's  "^sop's  Fables." 
Puss  in  Boots,  in  Lansing's  "  Fairy  Tales,"  Volume  I. 
The  Steadfast  Tin  Soldier,  in  Stickney's  "  Andersen's  Fairy  Tales  " 

(First  Series), 
The  Lark  and  her  Little  Ones,  in  Blodgett's  "  Second  Reader." 
The   Moon  in  the  Mill  Pond,  in  Wiltse's  "  Folklore  Stories  and 

Proverbs." 
Epaminondas,  in  Bryant's  "  Stories  to  Tell  to  Children." 
The  Frog  and  the  Ox,  in  Stickney's  "^sop's  Fables." 
The  Miller,  his  Son,  and  the  Donkey,  in  Stickney's  "^Csop's  Fables." 
Rikki-tikki-tavi  (Kipling),  in  "  The  First  Jungle  Book." 
Sleeping  Beauty,  in  Lansing's  "  Fairy  Tales,"  Volume  II. 
Snow   White   and   Rose    Red,    in   Young   and    Field's    "  Literary 

Readers,"  Book  Three. 
The  Pea  Blossom,  in  Stickney's  "  Andersen's  Fairy  Tales  "  (Second 

Series). 
The  Honest  Woodman,  in  Stickney's  "^sop's  Fables." 
The  Bell  of  Atri  (Longfellow),  in  Jones's  "  Fifth  Reader." 
The  Little  Hero  of  Haarlem,  in  Richmond's  "  Second  Reader." 
Aladdin,  in  Lane's  "  Arabian  Nights." 
The  Brahman,  the  Tiger,  and  the  Jackal,  in  Young  and  Field's 

"  Literary  Readers,"  Book  Four. 

[172] 


THE  STORY 

The  Ugly  Duckling,  in  Young  and  Field's  "  Literary  Readers," 

Book  Three. 
The  Legend  of  Saint  Christopher,  in  "  Language  Lessons  from  Lit- 
erature," Book  IL 
Rip  Van  Winkle,  in  Cyr's  "  Fourth  Reader." 
Ichabod   Crane,  in   Baker  and  Carpenter's  "  Language   Reader,'' 

Book  VI. 
Robert  of  Sicily,  in  Bryant's  "  Stories  to  Tell  to  Children." 
The  Red  Thread  of  Courage,  in  Coe's  "  Fourth  Reader." 
The  Nightingale,  in  Blodgett's  "  Third  Reader." 
The  Gulls  of  Salt  Lake,  in  Bryant's  "  Stories  to  Tell  to  Children." 
The  Griffin  and  the  Minor  Canon  (Stockton),  in  "  Fanciful  Tales." 
Old  Pipes  and  the  Dryad,  in  Young  and  Field's  "  Literary  Readers," 

Book  Four. 
The  Great  Stone  Face,  in  Jones's  "  Fourth  Reader." 
The  Niirnberg  Stove,  in  Carroll  and  Brooks's  "  Fourth  Reader." 
Hiawatha  (Longfellow)  or  Hiawatha,  the  Indian  Boy,  in  Young  and 

Field's  "  Literary  Readers,"  Book  Three. 
The  Happy  Prince,  in  Keyes's  "  Stories  and  Story-Telling." 
Bruce  and  the  Spider,  in  Lansing's  "  Patriots  and  Tyrants." 
King  Alfred  and  the  Cakes,  in  Blaisdell's  "  Stories  from  English 

History." 
King  Canute,  in  Blaisdell's  "  Stories  from  English  History." 
Richard   the   Lion-Hearted,  in  Blaisdell's   "  Stories  from   English 

History." 
Beowulf,  in  Holbrook's  "  Northland  Heroes." 
Hercules,  in  Francillon's  "  Gods  and  Heroes." 
Achilles,  in  Shaw's  "  Stories  of  the  Ancient  Greeks." 
Ulysses,  in  Shaw's  "  Stories  of  the  Ancient  Greeks." 
Perseus  and  Andromeda,  in  Shaw's  "  Stories  of  the  Ancient  Greeks." 
Pandora,  in  Shaw's  "  Stories  of  the  Ancient  Greeks." 
Baucis  and  Philemon,  in  Comstock's  "  Dramatic  Version  of  Greek 

Myths." 
The  King  of  the  Winds,  in  Richmond's  "  Second  Reader." 
Daedalus  and  Icarus,  in  Shaw's  "  Stories  of  the  Ancient  Greeks." 
Horatius  at  the  Bridge,  in  Jones's  "  Fifth  Reader." 
Hannibal,  in  Harding's  "  Story  of  Europe." 
Damon  and  Pythias,  in  Shaw's  "  Stories  of  the  Ancient  Greeks." 

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EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

The  Golden  Fleece,  in  Shaw's  "  Stories  of  the  Ancient  Greeks." 

Apollo,  in  Shaw's  "  Stories  of  the  Ancient  Greeks." 

Clytie,  in  "  New  Education  Reader,"  Book  III. 

The  Last  Lesson,  in  Bryant's  "  How  to  Tell  Stories  to  Children." 

Joan  of  Arc,  in  Lansing's  "  Patriots  and  Tyrants." 

William  Tell,  in  Fassett's  "  Beacon  Third  Reader." 

Roland,  in  Lansing's  "  Page,  Esquire,  and  Knight." 

King  Arthur  Stories,  in  Greene's  "  Legends  of  King  Arthur  and  his 

Court." 
Norse  Myths,  like  Thor,  Balder,  and  Loki,  in  Litchfield's  "  The 

Nine  Worlds." 
American  History  Stories,  as  those  of  Lincoln,  Washington,  Franklin, 

Putnam,  Marion,  John  Paul  Jones,  Boston  Tea  Party,  Signing  the 

Declaration,  Making  the  First  Flag.    These  may  be  taken  from 

any  history  or  historical  reader,  for  example,  Blaisdell  and  Ball's 

"  Short  Stories  from  American  History." 
The  Colors  of  the  Regiment,  in  "  Aldine  Fifth  Reader." 
The  Taking  of  Quebec,  in  Cyr's  "  Fifth  Reader." 
The  Soldier's  Reprieve,  in  "  Aldine  Fourth  Reader." 
A  Golden  Deed,  in  Wade  and  Sylvester's  "  Fourth  Reader." 
The  Rescue  of  the  Garrison,  in  "  Aldine  Fourth  Reader." 
The  Queen's  Pardon,  in  "  Aldine  Fourth  Reader." 
The  Perfect  Tribute,  in  Howe's  "  Fifth  Reader." 
Dorothea  Lynde  Dix,  in  Buckwalter's  "  Fourth  Reader." 
Waterloo,  in  Jones's  "  Fifth  Reader." 
A  Brave  Cabin  Boy,  in  "  Aldine  Fourth  Reader." 
Battle  of  Bannockbum,  in  Blodgett's  "  Fifth  Reader." 
Story  of  Sir  William  Wallace,  in  "  Selections  from  Scott's  '  Tales  of 

a  Grandfather.' " 
Exploits  of  Douglas  and  Randolph,  in  "  Selections  from  Scott's  '  Tales 

of  a  Grandfather.' " 
Heroism  of  a  Miner,  in  Coe's  "  Heroes  of  Everyday  Life." 
Hugh  John  and  the  Scots  Grays,  in  Jones's  "  Fourth  Reader." 
Charles  Martel,  in  Tappan's  "  European  Hero  Stories." 
Charlemagne,  in  Lansing's  "  Barbarian  and  Noble." 
John  Gutenberg,  in  Tappan's  "  European  Hero  Stories." 
The  Spanish  Armada,  in  Blaisdell's  "  Short  Stories  from  English 

History." 

[174] 


THE  STORY 

Doubting  Castle  and  Giant  Despair,  in  Howe's  "  Fifth  Reader." 
The  Capture  of  the  Wild  Cannon,  in  "  Aldine  Sixth  Reader." 
Leo,  the  Slave,  in  "  Aldine  Sixth  Reader." 
William  the  Conqueror,  in  Blaisdell's  "  Short  Stories  from  English 

History." 
RoUo  the  Viking,  in  Lansing's  "  Barbarian  and  Noble." 
The    Black    Prince,    in    Blaisdell's   "  Short    Stories   from   English 

History." 
Garibaldi,  the  Hero  of  Italy,  in  Dale's  "  Heroes  and  Greathearts." 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  in  Tappan's  "  European  Hero  Stories." 
Regulus,  in  Haaren's  "  Famous  Men  of  Rome." 
Story  of  Frithiof,  in  "  Stories  of  Legendary  Heroes." 
The  Battie  of  Marathon,  in  Shaw's  "  Stories  of  the  Ancient  Greeks." 
Leonidas  at  Thermopylae,  in  Shaw's  "  Stories  of  the  Ancient  Greeks." 
How  Cincinnatus  saved  Rome,  in  Howe's  "  Fifth  Reader." 
The  Story  of  Coriolanus,  in  Wade  and  Sylvester's  "  Fourth  Reader." 
Arnold  von  Winkelried,  in  Carroll  and  Brooks's  "  Fourth  Reader." 
The  First  Grenadier,  in  Carroll  and  Brooks's  "  Fourth  Reader." 
The  Red  Cross  Knight  and  the  Saracen,  in  Baldwin's  "  Seventh 

Reader." 
Nauhaught,  the  Deacon  (Whittier). 
The  Shepherd  Girl  of  Nanterre,  in  Wade  and  Sylvester's  "  Fourth 

Reader." 
Bible  Stories,  like  those  of  Daniel,  Samuel,  Moses,  Joseph,  Samson, 

David,  Noah,  Esther,  The  Talents,  The  Debtor,  The  Sower,  and 

The  Good  Samaritan,  and  The  Christmas  Story. 

The  stories  here  named  may  be  found  in  many  other 
places  than  those  given.  Most  of  the  standard  ones  are 
to  be  met  often  in  the  various  school  readers  and  lan- 
guage books.  A  single  source  is  supplied,  that  too  much 
time  may  not  be  wasted  in  search  for  one. 


[175] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 


REFERENCES 

Bailey.    For  the  Story-Teller.    Milton  Bradley  Company 

Bailey  and  Lewis.  For  the  Children's  Hour.  Milton  Bradley 
Company. 

Blaisdell.    Stories  from  English  History.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Blaisdell  and  Ball.  Hero  Stories  from  American  History.  Ginn 
and  Company. 

Brown.    In  Days  of  Giants.    Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 

Bryaxt.  How  to  Tell  Stories  to  Children.  Houghton  Mifflin  Com- 
pany. 

Bryant.    Stories  to  Tell  to  Children.    Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 

Coe.    Heroes  of  Everyday  Life.    Ginn  and  Company. 

COMSTOCK.  Dramatic  Version  of  Greek  Myths.  Ginn  and  Com- 
pany. 

Dillingham  and  Emerson.  "  Tell  It  Again  "  Stories.  Ginn  and 
Company. 

GuERBER.    Legends  of  the  Middle  Ages.  American  Book  Company. 

Guerber.    Myths  of  Greece  and  Rome.  American  Book  Company. 

GuERBER.    Myths  of  Northern  Lands.    American  Book  Company. 

Holbrook.  Dramatic  Reader  for  Lower  Grades.  American  Book 
Company. 

Johnston  and  Barnum.  Book  of  Plays  for  Litrie  Actors,  Ameri- 
can Book  Company. 

Keyes.    Stories  and  Story-Telling.    D.  Appleton  and  Company. 

Knight.  Dramatic  Reader  for  Grammar  Grades.  American  Book 
Company. 

Lansing.  Mediaeval  Builders  of  the  Modem  World.  2  volumes, 
Ginn  and  Company. 

Long.    Wood  Folk  Series.    7  volumes,    Ginn  and  Company. 

MacClintock.  Literature  in  Elementary  Schools.  The  University 
of  Chicago  Press. 

McGovern,  Stories  and  Poems  with  Lesson  Plans  for  Primary  and 
Intermediate  Grades.    Educational  Publishing  Company. 

NoYES.    Twilight  Stories.    Parker  P.  Simmons. 

NoYES  and  Ray.   Little  Plays  for  Little  People.  Ginn  and  Company. 

Radford.  King  Arthur  and  his  Knights.  Rand  McNally  &  Com- 
pany. 

Serl.    In  Fableland.    Silver,  Burdett  &  Company. 

[176] 


THE  STORY 

Shaw.    Stories  of  the  Ancient  Greeks.    Ginn  and  Company. 
Stevenson.     Children's  Classics   in    Dramatic  Form.     Houghton 

Mifflin  Company. 
Stickney.   iEsop's  Fables.    Ginn  and  Company. 
Stickney,  Andersen's  Fairy  Tales.   2  volumes.  Ginn  and  Company. 
Stockton.    Fanciful  Tales.    Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 
Tappan.    The  Children's  Hour.     10  volumes.    Houghton  Mifflin 

Company. 
WiGGiN  and  Smith.   The  Story  Hour.   Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 
Wilson.    Myths  of  the  Red  Children.    Ginn  and  Company. 
Wiltse.    Folklore  Stories  and  Proverbs.    Ginn  and  Company. 
WiLTSE.    Grimm's  Fairy  Tales.    2  volumes.    Ginn  and  Company. 
Wiltse.    Hero  Folk  of  Ancient  Britain.    Ginn  and  Company. 
WiLTSE.    The  Place  of  the  Story  in  Early  Education.    Ginn  and 

Company. 
Dramatic  Readers  mentioned  on  page  263. 


[m] 


CHAPTER  XVII 

GEOGRAPHY 

Importance  of  subject.  No  school  subject  furnishes  to 
either  teacher  or  pupils  greater  opportunity  for  variety, 
enjoyment,  and  profit  than  does  geography.  A  surprising 
number  of  teachers  express  themselves  as  hating  and 
dreading  it,  but  it  is  really  no  more  worthy  of  either  than 
is  the  dessert  that  accompanies  a  good  dinner.  The  hate 
and  dread  arise  from  a  feeling  of  the  breadth  and  import- 
ance of  the  subject  and  of  inability  to  handle  it  properly, 
but  if  one  jumps  boldly  in  and  proceeds  to  do  one's  best, 
its  discouraging  features  furnish  the  greatest  encourage- 
ment. It  is  so  broad,  so  interesting,  so  important,  that  out 
of  it  good  will  come  even  if  it  does  not  come  very  logically. 

Geography  was  for  altogether  too  many  years  regarded 
as  a  memory  subject  merely,  and  stress  was  laid  only  upon 
location  of  places.  The  pupils  went  through  the  book  and 
reviewed  it,  without  reference  to  outside  reading,  with  no 
idea  of  connecting  with  nature  study  or  language,  with 
thought  power  deadened  rather  than  strengthened,  till  it  is 
no  wonder  that  it  seemed  hard  and  unimportant.  No  subject 
furnishes  a  broader  field  for  observation  and  general  knowl- 
edge. No  subject  will  develop  thinking  more  if  an  effort 
is  made  in  that  direction.  In  none  is  there  a  greater  oppor- 
tunity for  interest  if  the  children  are  encouraged  to  talk 
freely  and  ask  questions.    None  can  be  more  illuminated 

[178] 


GEOGRAPHY 

by  means  of  objects,  pictures,  easily  available  reading 
matter.  All  that  is  needed  is  for  teacher  and  class  to  get 
into  the  right  attitude  concerning  it. 

Preliminary  work.  Geography  proper  need  not  begin 
below  the  fourth  grade,  but  material  contributory  to  geog- 
raphy may  be  amassed  from  the  moment  the  child  enters 
school,  through  the  general  discussions,  the  nature  study, 
and  the  language  work.  The  nature  lessons  with  their 
study  of  plants,  minerals,  animals,  and  natural  phenomena ; 
the  language  work  with  stories  of  different  peoples,  animals, 
and  occupations ;  and  those  stories  illustrative  of  the  work- 
ings of  nature  may  fill  the  children  full  of  a  simple,  usable 
knowledge  regarding  the  occupants  of  the  world  and  their 
relations  to  each  other  and  with  the  world  materials  with 
which  they  have  to  deal. 

Early  work :  oral.  When  children  have  been  three  or 
four  years  in  school  they  should  be  given  a  good  course 
in  oral  geography.  This  may  come  preferably  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fourth  year,  though  in  rural  schools,  if  it  is 
more  convenient,  fourth-  and  fifth-grade  pupils  may  well 
take  the  work  together.  Some  time  during  the  year  it 
might  be  well  to  read  "Our  World  Reader,"  though  this 
reading  should  serve  to  supplement  rather  than  to  direct 
the  course.  If  wished,  when  a  combination  of  fourth  and 
fifth  grades  is  made,  the  reader  might  be  used  one  year 
and  the  oral  course  the  next,  thus  getting  a  good  ground- 
ing in  geography  without  monotonous  repetition. 

The  work  should  be  development,  which  is  dismaying 
in  name  only,  and  the  lessons  should  be  founded  on  the 
material  already  gained  through  the  nature  and  language 
lessons  and  incidental  observation  and  reading.    Direct 

[179] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

observation  should  be  employed  in  connection  with  the 
daily  lessons,  and  work  may  well  start  with  the  home  sec- 
tion and  expand  naturally  to  include  the  world. 

Map  making  and  reading  in  this  connection.  A  certain 
ability  to  read  and  enjoy  maps  is  necessary,  and  this  must  be 
based  on  study  of  plans  and  maps.  Simple  little  plans  may 
be  made  of  the  school  building,  school  grounds,  the  neigh- 
boring locality,  and  —  if  the  teacher  feels  able  —  of  the 
town.  These  may  be  drawn  on  board  or  paper  or  constructed 
on  sand  tray  or  table.  They  may  be  rough  or  as  elaborate 
as  the  teacher  and  children  wish.  Their  purpose  is  largely 
to  lead  the  child  to  see  how  things  are  portrayed  in  maps. 
This  knowledge  may  be  increased  by  studying  a  map  of 
the  town  or  county,  if  some  home  in  the  community  can 
lend  it,  and  by  the  reading  of  other  maps — all  of  which 
may  be  done  in  a  very  informal  way.  The  difference  between 
a  map  and  a  picture  must  be  made  plain,  and  the  child  must 
get  a  little  idea  of  drawing  to  scale.  Work  of  this  kind 
should  occupy  only  a  few  weeks  at  most. 

Study  of  surface  features.  As  soon  as  possible  the  chil- 
dren should  be  started  on  interesting  home  topics.  They 
may  learn  all  the  local  surface  features  of  land  and  water — 
hill,  plain,  valley,  cape,  peninsula,  isthmus,  island,  spring, 
brook,  river,  pond,  lake,  strait,  coast.  Whatever  it  is  pos- 
sible to  observe  should  be  observed  directly.  Certain  sup- 
plementary work  may  be  done  by  means  of  mud  pies  in 
the  school  sand  pile,  or  by  the  sand  tray  or  table. 

As  these  smaller  features  are  studied,  the  child's  knowl- 
edge may  be  extended  to  include  the  world  features,  — those 
given  above,  and  also  plateau,  mountain,  bay,  sea,  ocean, 
basins,  systems,   tides,  waves,  harbors,  coast  line,  —  all 

[i8o] 


GEOGRAPHY 

those  things  which  may  come  smoothly  to  his  knowledge  in 
oral  lessons,  through  enlarging,  diminishing,  and  putting 
together  in  new  combinations  the  results  of  what  he  has 
seen.  Pictures  are  an  inestimable  aid  in  understanding 
such  things,  but  they  must  be  accompanied  by  explanations 
from  the  teacher,  by  free  discussion  by  the  class,  and  by 
as  much  descriptive  reading  as  possible. 

Order  of  procedure.  For  one  day's  lesson  a  child  may 
observe  such  surface  features  as  are  within  reach.  He  may 
talk  about  his  observations  for  another  lesson.  Then  he 
may  model  in  the  sand  what  he  has  seen  and  the  larger 
related  type.  If,  for  example,  he  has  seen  a  hill  and  valley, 
he  may  model  these,  together  with  mountain  and  valley, 
mountain  system,  and  mountain  range.  He  may  continue 
his  work  by  drawing  the  various  features  on  board  or  paper. 
He  may  look  to  see  them  illustrated  in  pictures  that  the 
teacher  shows,  then  he  may  find  the  same  features  in  other 
pictures,  and  finally  he  may  learn  how  they  are  represented 
on  maps  and  globes. 

Climatic  conditions.  He  must  be  introduced  to  climatic 
conditions,  but  they  will  prove  not  strange,  since  he  has 
always  observed  the  weather  and,  if  his  school  has  been 
right,  has  kept  weather  records  and  talked  about  clouds, 
fog,  mist,  rain,  dew,  snow,  ice,  and  hail  in  connection  with 
the  appearance  of  each.  From  these  the  teacher  should 
lead  him  to  the  larger  forms  that  he  may  not  have  seen. 
He  may  learn  of  evaporation  and  precipitation;  trace  mois- 
ture from  the  vapor  through  cloud,  fog,  and  rain.  It  is  not 
difficult.  A  few  experiments,  which  the  teacher  may  easily 
think  out  or  get  acquainted  with  through  books  like  Ricks 's 
"  Object  Lessons  "  or  many  similar  ones,  will  lay  open  the 

[i8i] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

whole  field.  It  is  not  a  hard  journey  for  a  child's  imagina- 
tion from  the  parched  ground  during  our  seasons  of  drouth 
to  the  desert  places ;  from  our  snow  to  the  snow  of  the 
Arctic  regions ;  from  our  fogs  to  foggy  Newfoundland ; 
from  our  snow,  melting  and  freezing  on  roofs,  to  the  Alpine 
or  Greenland  glaciers ;  from  our  pieces  of  ice,  breaking  up 
and  sailing  down  the  gutter  streams,  to  the  icebergs  of  the 
colder  zones.  The  child  will  move  breathlessly  along  the 
geographical  current,  and  the  teacher  will  grow  breathless 
too,  with  ideas  and  enthusiasm. 

If  the  pupil  be  shown  by  means  of  a  candle  the  outward 
and  inward  currents  in  the  room,  if  he  recalls  the  upward 
heat  current  from  stove  and  bonfire,  he  is  ready  to  think 
out  the  effect  of  the  sun  upon  the  different  parts  of  the 
earth.  The  candle  and  the  globe  or  apple  will  show  him 
how  constantly  the  sun  shines  on  the  equator ;  his  bonfire 
suggests  the  upward  current  of  air ;  he  sees  how  air  must 
rush  in  to  take  the  empty  place,  and  is  launched  upon  the 
question  of  the  seasons  and  the  winds.  He  may  make  a 
weather  vane  with  a  knitting  needle,  a  piece  of  cork,  and 
a  paper  vane.  He  may  make  it  work  by  blowing  it.  It  is 
easy  to  see  that  if  the  wind  blows  it,  it  will  act  in  the  same 
way.  He  may  be  made  wildly  interested  in  the  destructive 
effects  of  winds  and  in  the  Life-saving  Service.  Relation 
of  winds  to  rainfall,  of  rainfall  and  slopes  to  drainage,  of 
drainage  to  products  and  occupations,  may  all  be  thought 
out  —  much  better  thought  out  than  told  or  read. 

Relation  to  man.  "What  is  it  all  for.?"  "Why,  for 
man."  "How  does  man  live.?  How  do  the  people  in  this 
locality  get  a  living? "  The  child  sees  speedily  that  no  man 
can  live  by  his  own  efforts  with  comfort,  that  he  himself 

[182] 


GEOGRAPHY 

is  dependent  on  a  thousand  others  for  what  he  needs. 
Man  needs  food,  clothing,  building  material,  heat,  and 
such  things.  He  cannot  get  them  all  by  himself,  so  he  does 
what  he  can,  and  others  also  do  what  they  can,  and  then 
exchange  goes  on.  All  the  world  is  engaged  in  getting 
raw  material,  as  by  hunting,  fishing,  farming,  caring  for 
flocks  and  herds,  lumbering,  mining ;  or  in  preparing  raw 
materials  by  manufacture  ;  or  in  exchanging  raw  materials 
and  manufactures,  which  we  call  commerce. 

The  child  may  start  with  what  his  section  does  in  either 
of  these  lines  and  spread  out  from  these  to  the  work  of 
the  world.  He  will  learn  why  great  cities  spring  up  in 
particular  places,  why  other  regions  are  sparsely  populated. 
He  should  make  product  maps,  collect  objects  to  illustrate 
various  manufactures,  bring  in  all  the  pictures  touching 
upon  these  topics.  Any  teacher  might  be  aroused  to  en- 
thusiasm by  finding  how  many  pictures  may  be  collected 
easily,  to  show  lumbering,  mining,  wheat  raising,  cotton 
growth  and  manufacture,  or  a  hundred  other  things.  Why 
should  one  '"  hate  and  dread  "  to  teach  geography,  when  it 
is  so  difficult  to  do  it  wrongly  if  one  keeps  in  mind  the 
idea  of  enlarging  the  child's  knowledge  of  the  world,  in- 
creasing his  interest  in  it  and  his  thinking  power  ? 

As  an  aid  in  understanding  commerce,  the  pupil  should 
learn  about  roads,  bridges,  railroads,  lakes,  canals,  rivers, 
ocean  steamers.  He  may  start  with  his  country  road  and 
market  wagon,  but  that  should  not  be  the  end  of  his 
journey.  Time-tables  for  railroads  and  steamers  may  be 
employed  in  this  connection.  Various  ways  of  transporta- 
tion, centers  of  exchange,  different  people  engaged,  should 
enter  into  the  study. 

[183] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Following  the  start  with  the  leading  industry  of  his  sec- 
tion, he  may  study  the  size  and  growth  of  his  town,  then 
of  important  places  in  his  country  or  the  world.  In  the 
same  way  he  may  start  with  his  town  or  county  govern- 
ment and  the  nationalities  represented  in  his  locality,  and , 
keep  going  outward  from  that  as  long  as  time  permits. 

He  may  make  imaginary  journeys,  carry  on  imaginary 
correspondence,  and  come  out  at  the  end  of  the  year  en- 
thusiastic and  knowing  considerable  geography.  Of  course 
all  this  work  is  taken  very  simply.  The  outline  is  broad, 
—  the  teacher  needs  a  broad  outlook, — but  the  children 
are  small,  and  at  the  end  of  the  year's  work  one  expects  a 
beginning  to  be  made,  around  which  we  may  get  a  great 
geographical  growth  in  the  rest  of  the  school  course. 

Other  plans  for  oral  work.  Nor  is  the  plan  just  out- 
lined the  only  one  by  which  the  early  work  may  be  done. 
Many  teachers  make  all  the  lessons  type  studies  of  various 
kinds,  taking,  for  example,  the  Mississippi  Valley ;  the 
Great  Lakes,  Erie  Canal,  and  Hudson  River ;  Niagara 
Falls  ;  Egypt ;  Switzerland  ;  and  many  others  ;  each  be- 
ing treated  as  a  type,  serving  for  the  interpretation  of  other 
sections.  Dr.  Charles  A.  McMurry,  in  his  various  books 
on  geography,  makes  excellent  suggestions,  and  Carpenter's 
readers  are  full  of  good  material.  There  are  many  ways 
of  approach  that  will  surely  create  interest,  establish  right 
ways  of  going  to  work,  and  furnish  abundant  general  infor- 
mation for  further  use  as  the  geographical  work  continues. 
With  the  possibility  of  work  of  this  kind  being  done, 
how  can  a  teacher  be  satisfied  with  a  few  set,  formal  ques- 
tions and  rote  answers  as  a  substitute  for  real  geographical 
achievement  in  lower  grades  ? 

[184] 


GEOGRAPHY 

Geography  with  a  book.  The  child,  having  looked  the 
world  over  a  little  through  his  year  or  so  of  oral  geography, 
is  ready  to  begin  work  with  the  book,  but  that  does  not 
mean  that  the  book  is  to  be  given  him  as  a  substitute  for 
everything  else.  Too  many  teachers  think  their  whole  duty 
lies  in  assigning  a  lesson  and  then  hearing  it  recited.  The 
book  should  only  supplement  class  work.  The  regular 
work  in  class  should  be  carried  on  in  a  manner  only  a  little 
different  from  that  employed  before  the  book  is  used.  Each 
advance  lesson  should  be  taken  usually  in  class  in  the  form 
of  development  work,  then  the  pupil  may  be  sent  to  the 
book  to  get  additional  information  and  to  review  and  fix 
what  has  been  taken.  Not  all  parts  of  the  geography  are 
of  equal  importance,  and  the  pupil  should  be  trained  to 
select  the  most  essential  parts  as  being  the  important 
ones.  This  is  the  part  that  is  usually  emphasized  in  the 
development,  so  the  lesson  furnishes  needed  training. 
Growth  in  power  to  recognize  the  essential  comes  surely 
though  slowly  from  such  work,  and  geography  is  better 
fitted  than  many  subjects  for  training  of  this  sort.  Full 
and  free  discussion,  in  which  the  child  questions  at  will 
and  states  his  own  opinions,  will  be  of  great  advantage  in 
this  connection. 

Location  of  places.  Location  of  places  is  important,  and 
work  in  this  line  should  be  given.  It  should  not  be  taken 
in  place  of  other,  more  needed  work,  nor  should  the  teacher 
judge  it  necessary  for  the  location  of  all  the  small  rivers, 
lakes,  mountains,  or  towns  in  many  sections  to  be  learned. 
When  beginning  the  study  of  a  country  the  pupil  is  often 
interested  in  observing  minor  features,  but  this  should 
never  be  carried  to  the  extent  of  requiring  memorizing  of 

[185] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

them.  A  pupil  should,  at  the  end  of  his  course  in  geog- 
raphy, have  a  working  knowledge  of  the  situation  of  all 
really  important  places.  He  should  also  know  the  location 
of  smaller  places  important  in  his  section  of  the  country, 
but  for  a  child  to  be  expected  to  know  the  situation  of 
places  of  minor  importance  throughout  his  entire  country 
or  the  world  is  manifestly  absurd. 

Aids  in  the  work.  Field  lessons  should  still  be  empha- 
sized, and  type  lessons  may  well  be  used  in  connection  with 
the  study  of  countries.  The  large  outline  map,  made  of 
blackboard  cloth,  is  very  useful.  Maps  and  globes  should 
be  employed.  Map  drawing  and  modeling  are  excellent 
helps.  The  children  should  make  outline  maps  and  also 
relief  maps.  For  these  last,  one  may  use  flour  and  salt  in 
equal  quantities,  mixed  with  water  to  the  consistency  of 
bread  dough.  This  will  harden  and  may  even,  after  a  time, 
be  colored  with  water  color.  Clay  may  be  used  also,  and 
putty,  and  papier-mache  made  by  soaking,  till  they  form 
a  pulpy  mass,  newspapers  which  have  been  torn  into  bits. 
Plasticine  may  be  used  and  is  a  good  material  in  that  it 
will  serve  many  times.  The  easiest  medium  is  the  sand, 
and  that  will  fill  the  need  in  a  large  number  of  cases. 
Modeling  sand  is  best,  but  any  will  do. 

The  product-map  idea  may  be  enlarged  here.  A  big 
map  may  be  made,  and  the  children  may  bring  samples  of 
all  the  products  peculiar  to  localities,  and  these  may  be 
fastened  to  the  map  with  glue  or  thread.  A  map  of  this 
kind  will  do  more  to  fix  facts  and  enlarge  interest  than 
will  any  amount  of  book  study  alone.  The  pictures  and 
illustrative  objects  should  be  used  whenever  they  fit  the 
case.    It  makes  no  difference  if  they  have  appeared  many 

[186] 


GEOGRAPHY 

times  before  in  the  same  or  other  connections.  The  play 
idea  is  a  help,  and  many  games  should  be  introduced. 
These  may  vary  from  lists  of  printed  questions  which 
are  to  be  answered,  to  those  like  shiploading  with  proper 
products  at  certain  places  or  "  I  am  thinking  of  a  river 
beginning  with  A." 

Use  of  different  books.  With  older  classes  usually  more 
than  one  book  should  be  used  for  studying  the  lesson  — 
more  than  one  geography,  and,  if  possible,  geographical 
reading  books  and  the  scrapbook  of  clippings.  It  is  a 
good  idea  to  follow  a  book,  but  not  to  limit  the  work  to 
one  book  alone. 

Emphasis  of  causal  idea.  As  the  children  grow  older, 
there  should  be  more  and  more  thinking,  more  tracing  to 
sources  and  causes.  No  child  should  finish  the  subject  of 
geography  without  knowing  South  America,  Europe,  Asia, 
and  the  other  continents,  in  comparison  with  North  America. 
They  should  be  able  to  locate  various  corresponding  regions 
in  the  different  countries,  corresponding  causes  producing 
like  results.  They  should  have  such  a  careful  causal  study 
of  North  America  that  they  may  be  almost  able  to  work 
out  the  geography  of  the  other  continents  from  the  map 
and  what  it  shows  of  physical  conditions. 

Reviews  with  older  classes.  The  higher  grammar-school 
classes,  instead  of  reviewing  the  single  big  book  over  and 
over  again,  should  study  largely  by  subjects.  They  should 
get  acquainted  in  the  broad  with  the  United  States  and 
with  a  few  of  the  more  important  countries  in  South 
America,  and  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.  Aside  from 
the  general  study,  little  attention  need  be  paid  to  the  less 
important  countries.    Much  study  of  types  may  be  done  in 

[187] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

the  advanced  classes.  Fishing,  lumbering,  agriculture, 
commerce,  different  forms  of  manufacture,  may  serve  as 
subjects,  the  work  starting  with  the  raw  material  and  trac- 
ing it  to  its  various  destinations.  I  once  saw  a  most  inter- 
esting and  profitable  lesson  on  coal — the  localities,  mining, 
varieties,  transportation,  being  discussed  at  length.  The 
class  grew  brilliant  and  excited  as  they  talked  of  the  various 
great  coaling  stations  of  the  world.  The  amount  of  reading 
that  must  have  been  done  was  astonishing.  In  the  same 
way,  iron,  wool,  cotton,  wheat,  and  many  others'  might  be 
taken  as  general  subjects.  They  would  be  equally  sure  to 
create  enthusiasm  and  produce  much  research.  In  these 
general  lessons  many  places  indicate  lacks  which  call  for 
reviews  of  various  things  already  taken  once,  and  the  review 
comes  with  a  will  because  it  fits  to  something  seen  by  the 
pupil  to  be  needed.  Travel  may  also  come  in  as  a  way  of 
reviewing.  If  a  teacher  takes  her  class  to  journey  through 
England  or  France  or  Russia  or  even  through  Europe 
generally,  they  get  at  the  main  things  in  a  picturesque  way, 
and  the  final  year  of  geography  might  well  be  introduced 
to  the  children  under  the  head  of  A  Year  of  Travel.  In 
this  way  conditions  of  climate  might  be  reached,  the 
reason  for  the  development  of  particular  industries  and 
growth  of  particular  sections,  all  the  main  geographical 
facts,  in  short. 

Toward  the  very  end  of  the  work  it  is  well  to  review 
one's  own  group  of  states,  but  these  should  be  taken  as 
a  general  study,  not  by  following  the  plan  of  the  book. 
When  the  question  of  occupations  in  the  section  is  reached, 
location  of  chief  centers  will  come  of  themselves  naturally 
and  be  far  more  interesting  to  the  child  than  if  he  learns 

[188] 


GEOGRAPHY 

book  lists  of  places  with  the  things  for  which  they  are 
noted.  Near  the  end  of  geographical  study,  also,  a  little 
general  survey  of  mathematical  geography  is  often  produc- 
tive of  good. 

The  teacher  and  books  as  sources  of  aid.  The  teacher 
must  ever  know  more  than  the  pupils.  She  must  inspire 
them  to  read,  but  she  must  read  more.  She  must  make 
them  think,  but  she  must  think  more.  She  must  teach  them 
to  know  what  the  book  says,  but  she  must  know  it  sooner 
and  better.  No  one  can  teach  geography  without  justly 
hating  and  dreading  it  if  she  never  prepares  her  lesson, 
hears  the  class  with  book  open,  follows  answers  with  her 
finger,  openly  hunts  for  places  on  the  map,  and  either 
guesses  at  pronunciations  or  slyly  looks  them  up  in  the 
back  of  the  book. 

Advanced  work  in  geography  calls  for  books,  and  some- 
way, either  through  the  school  library  or  the  public  library, 
the  generosity  of  friends,  the  common  sense  of  school 
officers,  or  the  devotion  of  teachers,  they  must  be  had. 
One  should  as  soon  think  of  teaching  any  trade  without 
tools,  of  teaching  to  sew  without  cloth,  needle,  thread, 
and  thimble,  as  of  teaching  geography  with  next  to 
nothing  to  work  with  or  with  no  time  and  effort  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher. 

REFERENCES 

Allen.    Geographical   and   Industrial   Studies,    3   volumes.    Ginn 

and  Company. 
Andrews.    Geographical  Plays.    Ginn  and  Company. 
Brigham.    Geographic  Influences  in  American  History.   Ginn  and 

Company. 
Carpenter.    Geographical  Readers,   American  Book  Company. 

[189] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Carpenter.    Industrial  Readers.   American  Book  Company. 

Frye.    Child  and  Nature.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Frye.    Home  Geography  and  Type  Studies.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Keller  and  Bishop.  Commercial  and  Industrial  Geography.  Ginn 
and  Company. 

King.  Methods  and  Aids  in  Geography.  Lothrop,  Lee  &  Shepard  Co. 

Leete.    Exercises  in  Geography.    Longmans,  Green,  &  Co. 

McMurry.  Excursions  and  Lessons  in  Home  Geography.  The 
Macmillan  Company. 

McMurry.  Special  Method  in  Geography.  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany. 

McMurry.  Type  Studies  in  United  States  Geography.  The  Mac- 
millan Company. 

Mill.   The  International  Geography.    D.  Appleton  and  Company. 

MuRDOCK.  Outlines  in  Geography.  F.  F.  Murdock,  North  Adams, 
Mass. 

Ricks.    Object  Lessons,  Volume  II.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

Stoddard,  John  L.  Stoddard's  Lectures.  George  L.  Shuman 
and  Company. 

The  National  Geographic  Magazine.  National  Geographic  Society, 
Washington,  D.C. 

Thompson.   Minimum  Essentials  (Geography).   Ginn  and  Company. 


[190] 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
HISTORY 

Introductory.  History  ranks  with  geography  in  interest 
and  in  power  to  train  the  reason.  It  adds  to  this,  great 
power  in  an  ethical  direction.  Yet  many  children,  particu- 
larly girls,  never  like  history,  many  do  not  think  one  real 
thought  in  connection  with  it,  and  many  more  fail  to  get  its 
ethical  lessons.  A  taste  for  history  is  born  with  some  peo- 
ple, but  it  has  to  be  cultivated  in  a  far  larger  number.  Very 
few  children  fail  to  be  interested  in  people,  and  out  of  this 
interest  may  grow  a  real  fondness  for  history.  When  the 
age  of  pleasure  in  heroes  and  adventures  arrives,  history 
may  be  made  the  largest  contributory  subject. 

Story-telling  a  foundation  for  history.  The  story  work, 
even  with  little  children,  may  do  good  service.  Many  of 
the  history  stories  are  better  suited  to  older  children,  but 
the  very  youngest  school  pupil  may  find  enjoyment  in 
stories  of  the  colonial  children  or  of  Indian  life ;  may  grow 
eager  over  Pocahontas  and  John  Smith,  Columbus,  Wash- 
ington, Lincoln,  Marion,  and  many  others.  I  have  known 
of  boys  brought  up  on  these  stories,  who  at  six  or  seven 
knew  more  history  than  many  high-school  graduates ;  they 
made  it  enter  into  their  lives  and  dominate  their  plays. 

History  reading.  History  reading  in  school  follows  the 
story-telling.  There  are  many  supplementary  readers  that 
give  good  history  material,  and  the  child  never  fails  of 

[191] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

interest.  These  books  maybe  used  to  furnish  subjects  for 
language  work,  or  they  may  serve  for  silent  reading,  or 
they  may  be  employed  for  regular  class  readers.  It  is 
maintained  that  most  class-reading  work  should  be  directly 
in  the  line  of  literature,  but  history  and  literature  are  so 
interwoven  that  history  readers  may  well  be  classed  with 
literature.  Though  this  chapter  has  reference  to  United 
States  history  largely,  yet  this  may  be  a  good  place  to  say 
that  history  reading  and  stories  should  not  be  confined  to 
work  with  the  United  States.  Greek,  Roman,  medieval, 
English,  all  history  has  been  served  up  in  story  form  and 
presents  a  fascinating  field  for  school  reading. 

The  reading  of  history  stories  should  be  accompanied 
by  free  and  long  discussion,  by  dramatization,  and  by  as 
much  outside  reading  and  investigation  as  possible.  Every 
encouragement  should  be  given  toward  introducing  this 
with  other  school  subjects  into  the  children's  out-of -school 
play.  Pictures  and  illustrative  objects  should  be  made  to 
do  full  duty  in  class,  and  the  map  should  be  in  constant 
use  in  connection  with  this  reading. 

Regular  history  study.  If  enough  history  reading  is 
introduced  with  the  younger  classes,  the  pupil,  by  the  time 
he  has  reached  the  seventh  grade,  is  ready  for  some 
pretty  good  history  study.  It  is  better  to  keep  both  his- 
tory and  geography  through  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth 
grades,  alternating  with  each  other,  rather  than  to  study 
either  one  exhaustively  and  then  leave  it  entirely. 

Early  work  in  history  proper  should  be  detailed  and,  as 
far  as  possible,  biographical.  Once  get  the  children  into 
the  full  tide  of  interest  through  days  of  work  on  the  In- 
dians, Columbus,  Cabot,  Hudson,  Miles  Standish,  John 

[192] 


HISTORY 

Smith,  William  Penn,  and  the  like,  and  they  will  sail  along 
stanchly  and  blithely  through  all  the  work.  The  Indians, 
while  perhaps  not  of  great  importance  in  some  ways,  are 
worth  their  weight  in  gold  as  a  means  of  starting  history 
classes  enthusiastically. 

What  to  emphasize.  It  is  better  to  study  the  more  im- 
portant explorers  and  colonies  carefully  and  fully  and  just 
glance  at  the  others,  rather  than  to  study  all  a  little.  Atten- 
tion should  be  given  to  the  life  of  the  people  —  in  the 
various  colonies,  at  the  close  of  the  Revolution,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Civil  War,  at  the  present  time.  Wars 
should  have  less  study  than  has  been  usually  given  them, 
and  emphasis  should  be  laid  on  causes  and  results.  Great 
movements  should  be  traced  from  their  beginning  to  their 
culmination.  Topics  leading  to  present-day  interests  should 
be  carefully  discussed.  Dates  should  not  be  given  great 
prominence,  A  few  important  ones,  and  power  to  reckon 
others  from  those,  are  all  that  is  needed. 

Local  history.  It  is  very  important  that  children  should 
know  the  history  of  their  own  state  and  locality,  so  enough 
time  should  be  put  upon  local  history  so  that  the  pupils 
may  become  well  informed  regarding  it.  Nor  should  the 
effort  end  with  this.  A  permanent  interest  should  be  estab- 
lished, which  the  future  may  be  trusted  to  increase.  There 
seems  to  be  no  better  way  toward  starting  a  child  on  the 
road  to  good  citizenship  than  through  study  of  the  various 
elements  which  go  toward  the  making  of  his  neighbor- 
hood. Work  of  this  kind  may  make  a  pupil  grow  to  feel  that 
he  himself  may  do  something  which  may  count  historically. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  find  material  for  this  study,  since 
state,  town,  and  county  histories  are  common  and  one 

[193] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

may  get  access  to  many  records.  Historical  societies  are 
always  glad  to  help  in  the  education  of  children,  and  their 
collections  are  often  valuable.  Older  residents  are  usually 
willing  to  talk  to  the  pupils,  singly  or  as  a  whole,  regard- 
ing changes,  or  past  customs  or  events.  For  nearly  every 
state  there  exists  at  least  one  supplementary  reader  con- 
taining in  attractive  form  the  most  important  happenings 
in  the  life  of  the  state. 

Verbatim  recitation.  Word  for  word  recitation  should 
never  be  permitted.  History  has  been  studied  in  this  way 
too  long.  Many  a  child  has  gone  through  school  never 
realizing  that  this  was  not  the  best  way,  simply  giving  out 
words,  of  which  he  might  know  the  meaning  indeed,  but 
for  whose  meaning  he  cared  not  a  jot.  From  such  recita- 
tions one  almost  never  brings  away  the  meaning  of  the 
whole  thing,  the  relation  of  one  part  to  another. 

Topical  study  from  more  than  one  book.  Verbatim  reci- 
tation may  be  avoided  by  the  habitual  use  of  more  than 
one  book.  If  the  teacher  wishes,  one  text  may  be  taken 
as  a  standard  and  others  employed  in  a  supplementary 
way,  but  to  get  at  the  heart  of  the  thing,  there  is  no  way 
so  good  as  to  present  the  subject  by  topics,  with  reference 
to  pages  of  several  books,  and  let  the  children  forage  for 
the  subject  matter.  Results  at  first  may  be  meager,  but 
training  remedies  that,  and  a  clear  idea  of  the  perspective 
of  history,  a  knowledge  of  the  relative  importance  of  vari- 
ous facts,  the  reasoning,  the  power  to  learn  by  one's  own 
research,  will  grow  and  strengthen  rapidly. 

How  to  get  the  books.  The  books  necessary  for  such 
study  will  come  in  various  ways.  It  is  as  cheap  to  buy 
four  histories  of  five  kinds  as  twenty  of  one  kind,  and  no 

[194] 


HISTORY 

objection  is  usually  raised  to  buying  books  enough  to  go 
around.  The  teacher  will  have  a  few  of  her  own.  The 
children  will  bring  a  few  from  home.  The  school  library 
will  furnish  one  or  two,  and  the  public  library  others,  per- 
haps. If  the  books  can  include  a  few  elementary  histories, 
they  will  be  of  value  since  the  children  of  less  power 
will  get  about  all  they  can  master  from  these.  The  history 
readers  also  will  do  their  part. 

Discussion  in  class.  In  the  lesson  time,  discussion  and 
questions  should  abound.  The  children  should  ask  all 
they  want  to,  and  if  no  one  can  answer,  so  much  the 
better.  Everyone  can  hunt  for  the  answer  for  the  next 
day.  There  have  been  classes  in  which  the  children  did 
almost  all  the  questioning,  with  profit.  The  teacher's  ques- 
tions should  include  many  like  the  following :  "  What 
would  you  have  done  ?"  "  Was  that  right .-'  "  "  What  was 
the  other  side  .?  "  "  What  would  have  happened  if  such  a 
thing  had  been  done  ?  "  The  Civil  or  the  Mexican  War, 
rightly  handled,  may  do  more  to  teach  reasoning  and 
develop  moral  judgment  than  much  arithmetic  and  many 
Sunday-school  lessons. 

Maps,  and  correlation  with  geography.  As  previously 
said,  maps  should  be  made  prominent.  The  maps  in  the 
books,  outline  maps,  chart  maps,  and  blackboard  maps  may 
be  employed.  It  is  absurd  to  teach  such  things  as  the 
opening  of  the  Mississippi,  Sherman's  march,  Dr.  Whit- 
man's journey  to  Oregon,  the  purchase  of  Louisiana  or 
Alaska,  and  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California,  without  the 
use  of  the  map  as  the  very  foundation  of  the  lesson.  Such 
things  as  Paul  Revere's  ride  and  the  battle  of  Lexington 
call  for  the  blackboard  map  iu  addition  to  the  usual  chart. 

[195] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Often  a  whole  geography  lesson  or  series  of  lessons 
may  be  given  as  a  preparation  for  special  history  work. 
The  Panama  Canal  furnishes  an  illustration  of  this,  or  the 
study  of  Cuba  and  the  Philippines  in  connection  with  the 
Spanish  War ;  and  no  possible  understanding  can  be  ob- 
tained of  the  difference  in  character  of  the  early  settle- 
ments in  the  North  and  the  South  or  the  different  attitude 
of  people  toward  slavery  without  a  clear  knowledge  of 
geographical  conditions. 

A  correlation  of  history  with  geography  should  be  made 
whenever  possible.  This  correlation  should  not  be  confined 
to  a  few  particular  lessons.  The  tendency  of  children  to 
learn,  and  of  teachers  to  teach,  detached  facts  in  all  sub- 
jects makes  the  need  imperative  that  teachers  shall  use 
earnest  effort  to  connect  lessons  of  to-day  in  any  subject 
with  those  of  last  week,  last  month,  or  even  last  term  — 
a  time  which  seems  to  children  to  be  so  remote  as  to  be 
absolutely  unconnected  with  present  needs. 

Pictures,  poems,  and  stories.  Pictures  will  never  fail 
if  the  teacher  realizes  their  importance,  and  many  of  the 
pictures  easily  obtainable  are  best  suited  to  history  work. 
Pictures  of  people,  places,  and  events  are  all  valuable,  and 
a  picture  once  used  should  not  be  put  aside  but  used 
again  as  soon  as  possible. 

Poems  and  stories  are  very  helpful.  Many  of  our  most 
beautiful  and  stirring  poems  deal  with  historical  facts  and 
hauntingly  fix  the  facts  through  the  tendency  of  the  poem 
to  force  itself  repeatedly  to  the  front  in  thought.  Many 
poems  too  long  to  be  learned  may  be  read  to  the  class. 
There  are  also  many  little  stories,  not  directly  containing 
the  historical  facts,  which  yet  are  so  associated  with  them 

[196] 


HISTORY 

as  to  be  a  help  in  learning  and  liking  history.  Many  books 
so  handle  historical  material  or  give  such  vivid  pictures 
of  the  times  or  so  portray  some  great  character  in  history 
that  calling  the  attention  of  the  children  to  them  will  serve 
as  a  large  means  for  doing  more  effective  work. 

Reviews.  Reviews  in  history  are  of  the  greatest  value, 
but  in  all  reviews  those  are  the  best  which  are  incidental 
and  which  approach  the  subject  from  a  different  point  of 
view.  Studying  history  by  topics,  from  different  books,  fur- 
nishes many  excellent  reviews,  as  the  different  material 
is  gone  over  endlessly,  and  as  one  meets  the  man  again 
or  surveys  the  event  in  the  light  of  those  to  which  it  led. 

Training  gained  through  history.  History  should  train 
to  reasoning  power.  The  child  should  find  the  central 
thread  upon  which  the  events  are  strung  and  by  which 
they  are  held  together.  It  should  train  to  power  to  talk. 
It  should  lead  to  habits  of  investigation.  It  should  teach 
ethics  —  power  to  see  the  other  side,  to  judge  of  the  right 
and  wrong,  and  to  choose  the  right  regardless  of  conse- 
quences. It  should  teach  patriotism,  love  of  great  deeds, 
love  of  freedom. 

Preparation  of  teacher.  If  the  teacher  can  create  in  her 
pupils  a  love  for  history,  she  will  have  gone  far  toward 
attaining  all  the  above-named  results.  To  do  this  she  must 
know  her  subject.  The  trouble  with  many  young  teachers 
is  a  lack  of  knowledge.  They  know  each  day's  work  well 
enough,  but  have  no  large  grasp  of  the  subject.  In  a  sense, 
they  know  little  more  than  the  children  themselves.  Study 
and  thought  are  the  only  things  that  will  remedy  this  con- 
dition. Reading  biographies  of  leaders,  studying  such  books 
as  Gordy and  Twitchell's  "American  History  Pathfinder" 

[197] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

or  the  report  of  the  Committee  of  Eight  on  the  study  of 
history,  reading  European  history  as  well  as  American, 
all  such  things  will  help.  What  is  most  needed  is  a  pas- 
sionate enthusiasm  for  the  subject,  just  what  we  need  in 
all  subjects.  This  makes  willingness  to  work.  It  is  vastly 
more  trouble  to  teach  history  in  a  right  way,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  brings  vastly  more  satisfaction.  No  teacher 
succeeds  in  any  subject  without  exertion,  without  a  profound 
giving  of  herself. 

REFERENCES 

Atkinson.  Introduction  to  American  History.  Ginn  and  Company. 
Charters.    Teaching  the  Common  Branches.    Houghton  Mifflin 

Company. 
GoRDY  and  Twitchell.    American  History  Pathfinder.    Lothrop, 

Lee  &  Shepard  Company. 
Harding.    The  Story  of  Europe.    Scott,  Foresman  and  Company. 
Kemp.      History   for   Graded   and    District   Schools.      Ginn   and 

Company. 
Study  of  History  in  Elementary  Schools.    Report  of  Committee  of 

Eight.    Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 

References  for  Local  History. 

State,  town,  or  county  histories. 

The  sections  on  the  different  states  in  the  regular  school  histories. 

The  historical  parts  of  the  special  work  on  the  states,  in  the 

different  school  geographies. 
The  collections  and  records  of  the  state  historical  societies. 
State  year  books  for  general  statistics. 
Town  and  county  records. 

Supplementary  readers,  containing  stories  of  a  special  state. 
The  recollections  of  the  older  residents. 


[198] 


CHAPTER  XIX 
NATURE  STUDY 

Introductory.  Nature  study  furnishes  the  country- 
teacher's  opportunity  and  may  become  a  joy  to  any 
teacher  who  goes  about  it  in  the  right  spirit.  The  term 
"nature  study,"  as  used  for  work  commonly  done  in  school, 
includes  much  of  elementary  science,  and  its  teaching 
often  develops  a  real  scientific  spirit  in  the  child.  The 
teacher  should  aim  in  her  work  to  get  the  pupil  into  a 
sympathetic  attitude  toward  nature,  and  opportunities  are 
all  about  her  for  producing  such  an  attitude.  He  should 
be  made  interested,  observant,  inquisitive.  He  should  aSk 
more  and  more  questions  daily,  and  to  many  of  these  he 
should  obtain  answers  for  himself. 

What  to  include.  The  problem  of  how  to  begin  is  seri- 
ous only  because  there  are  so  many  good  ways  of  begin- 
ning, so  many  good  things  with  which  to  start.  I  should 
say  the  teacher  had  best  begin  with  what  most  interests 
her,  but  if  she  prefers,  she  may  begin  with  what  most 
attracts  the  children  with  whom  she  has  to  deal.  The 
prominent  nature  interest  of  the  locality  furnishes  a  good 
starting  point.  The  only  absolutely  necessary  thing  is  that 
some  start  be  made.  The  teacher  should  select  for  sub- 
jects useful  things  mainly,  but  secondarily  she  may  teach 
whatever  the  child  wishes  to  know.  In  village  or  rural 
schools  much  of  the  work  should  lead  finally  and  more  or 

[199] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

less  directly  to  agriculture.  The  ground  includes  work 
with  plants,  animals,  minerals,  and  natural  phenomena. 
As  helpful  in  connection  with  these,  one  gets  simple  little 
bits  of  physics,  chemistry,  geology,  and  astronomy. 

Plant  life.  What  may  the  child  wish  to  know,  and  be 
helped  by  the  knowing,  in  plant  life  ?  His  first  interest 
may  come  through  flowers,  or  sprouting  seeds,  or  budding 
twigs,  or  fruiting  plants.  In  either  case  he  finally  gets  to 
thinking  about  the  whole  subject,  and  one  place  of  start- 
ing is  as  good  as  another.  He  has  to  recognize  the  parts 
of  a  plant  and  the  cycle  of  its  growth.  He  must  learn  that 
the  plant  usually  consists  of  root,  stem,  leaves,  blossoms,  and 
fruit ;  the  whole  growth-process  taking  place,  he  discovers,  in 
order  that  seed  or  what  answers  for  seed  may  be  produced,  so 
that  a  new  plant  may  be  made  in  turn.  Here  the  little  child 
finds  the  first  big  wonder — all  these  pains  that  new  plants 
may  come.  The  wonder  is  bound  to  grow,  and  it  seems 
one  of  the  principal  needs  in  the  study  that  nature's  large 
and  wonderful  plans  should  stand  out  as  clearly  as  possible. 
The  little  pupil  early  learns  the  parts  of  the  plant,  the  place 
and  manner  of  their  growth,  and  the  general  use  of  each 
part  to  the  plant  and  to  man.  Around  this  early  knowledge 
may  be  grouped  the  later  in  any  convenient  order. 

Fall  work  with  plants.  If  the  teacher's  first  start  in 
the  school  comes  in  the  fall,  she  finds  demanding  atten- 
tion most  insistently  such  things  as  the  preparation  of  the 
trees  for  winter,  the  changing  and  the  falling  leaves,  the 
ripening  of  the  fruit  of  the  trees  —  not  the  fruit  trees  alone, 
like  the  apple  and  the  pear,  but  the  nut  trees  and  all 
others  whose  fruit  matures  in  the  fall.  Here  will  develop 
more  of  the  wonder  as  one  begins  to  investigate  to  see 

[  200  ] 


NATURE  STUDY 

if  all  trees  have  fruit  and  how  they  come  by  it — a  problem 
to  be  answered  partly  by  present  observation,  partly  by 
memory,  and  partly  to  be  stored  up  for  future  answering 
another  year.    Nature  is  a  great  continued  story. 

The  pumpkins,  squashes,  cucumbers,  beets,  turnips, 
onions,  potatoes,  all  the  fall  vegetables,  may  be  worked 
upon  and  are  very  interesting  now. 

Here  the  child  wonders  again  as  he  finds  so  many  ways 
of  storing  nourishment  for  future  use — in  the  seed  as  pea 
and  bean ;  in  the  root,  as  the  beet  and  turnip  ;  in  the  bud, 
as  the  onion ;  in  the  stem,  as  the  potato.  Not  only  chil- 
dren but  grown  people  also  are  surprised  to  find  that  the 
potato  is  not  a  root.  They  use  the  argument  that  because  it 
grows  under  ground  it  must  be  root,  but  learning  that  only 
stems  bear  buds  and  branches  and  finding  the  branches 
growing  in  the  form  of  sprouts  in  the  axils  of  embryo 
leaves  on  the  potato,  they  accept  the  fact  and  grow  doubt- 
ful of  believing  that  all  things  are  so  because  they  have 
always  thought  them  so.  Children  call  the  onion  a  root  for 
the  old  reason,  but  taking  one  apart  they  find  the  parts  look 
like  leaves,  and  an  opening  is  made  for  a  story,  the  end  of 
which  may  be  suggested  when  they  study  some  big  terminal 
bud  on  a  tree  in  the  spring.  In  ways  like  these  they  are 
trained  to  minds  open  to  conviction,  eager  to  grow  to 
new  beliefs. 

Surprised  to  find  what  they  have  taken  for  roots  to  be 
something  else,  "Are  there  many  underground  stems  ? " 
they  ask.  "  Let  us  find  out,"  says  the  teacher.  "Are  they 
always  thickened  ?  "  another  problem  for  solution.  The 
beauty  of  it  is  the  fact  that  observation  through  a  long 
time  is  required  for  the  answer  to  many  of  the  questions. 

[20I] 

\ 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

The  child  finds  out  that  some  of  his  enemies  are  these 
underground  stems ;  for  example,  the  grass  that  creeps 
along  under  ground  and  seems  to  say  "Thank  you  "  when 
you  cut  it  up  with  a  hoe,  because  you  have  made  a  lot  of 
sturdy  little  plants  and  saved  it  the  trouble.  Other  aspects 
of  stems  will  appear  as  the  work  goes  on,  and  the  child  is 
always  interested  in  them.  Study  of  bare  branches  teaches 
him  that  nature  does  not  take  chances.  Careful  preparation 
for  next  year  is  made  before  the  winter  comes.  Indeed, 
getting  interested  in  nature's  foresight  is  a  large  means 
of  training  to  thoughtfulness. 

Seed  dissemination.  Not  the  least  interesting  part  of  the 
fall  plant  work  is  the  dissemination  of  seeds.  If  seeds  are 
collected,  it  makes  a  never-ending  source  of  pleasure,  and 
the  child's  wonder  increases  as  he  finds  them  catching 
rides  on  people's  clothing  and  animals'  fur ;  being  borne 
along  by  the  wind  ;  snapped,  as  out  of  guns,  by  the  open- 
ing of  the  seed  cases ;  or  scattered  by  animals.  Here  he 
becomes  interested  in  the  attractive  appearance  of  the 
fruit  —  its  color,  odor,  taste  —  and  in  the  observing  that 
these  attractions  do  not  appear  till  the  seed  is  matured. 
He  observes  the  abundance  of  seeds  produced  by  weeds 
and  learns  the  value  of  destroying  the  weed  before  it  has 
time  to  mature. 

He  begins  to  get  a  reason  for  protecting  birds,  with- 
out whom  there  would  be  so  many  undesirable  plants. 
Seeing  the  great  number  of  seeds  borne  by  the  weed 
and  the  power  of  such  a  plant  to  live,  though  its  seeds 
be  so  tiny,  he  may  be  made  to  understand  that  many 
little  things,  well  or  ill  done,  will  more  than  balance  a 
few  large  ones. 

[  202  ] 


NATURE  STUDY 

Winter  plant  study.  Winter  study  may  include  certain 
of  the  work  suggested  for  fall,  like  that  with  vegetables 
and  fruits,  but  winter  is  not  without  other  means  for  plant 
study,  though  most  of  this  work  may  be  better  done  in 
fall  and  spring.  One  of  the  best  things  for  winter  study 
is  furnished  in  the  evergreens,  which  are  interesting  be- 
cause they  stay  green  when  other  trees  are  bare  and  because 
of  their  connection  with  Christmas.  The  child  may  find 
out  whether  the  tree  actually  does  not  shed  its  leaves ;  may 
account  for  the  peculiar  growth  of  the  tree  through  arrange- 
ment of  the  buds,  follow  out  the  growth  for  several  years, 
think  of  reasons  for  the  characteristics  of  the  tree  fitting 
it  to  its  place  of  growth,  observe  the  buds  and  cones.  He 
finds  the  need  of  supplementing  this  observation  by  memory 
of  the  summer  and  by  further  observation  next  summer. 
Trees,  leafless  in  winter,  may  also  be  studied  now. 

In  the  winter  the  pupil  will  be  interested  in  studying 
bulbs  and  other  plants  grown  indoors,  if  such  work  is  pos- 
sible under  the  conditions  at  hand.  Such  plants  add  greatly 
to  the  pleasure  of  school  life,  since  out  of  doors  is  so  devoid 
of  bloom.  In  the  winter  also  may  be  studied  many  com- 
mercial plants  —  cotton,  tea,  tobacco,  wheat,  rice,  sugar 
cane,  and  those  that  have  a  marked  influence  geographi- 
cally. Certain  specimens  may  be  obtained,  and  much 
shown  by  pictures. 

Plant  study  in  the  spring.  Spring  opens  the  door  again 
to  an  abundance  of  plant  study.  The  child  is  eagerly  ready 
to  see  how  the  seeds  he  has  observed  in  the  fall  get  about 
their  work  in  the  spring.  He  marvels  that  they  can  do  it 
so  quickly  and  gets  his  eyes  open  to  the  reason  —  a  ques- 
tion of  care  for  the  future  again,  stored  food  making  the 

[  203  ] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

problem  easy.  He  is  much  pleased  at  discovering  the  little 
plant  all  prepared,  the  different  ways  in  which  the  food 
may  be  packed.  He  sees  seeds  sprouting  everywhere,  won- 
ders at  bare  places  anywhere,  and  so  learns  to  find  the 
enemies  of  plant  life  and  guard  against  them. 

Study  of  budding  twigs  comes  early.  They  may  be 
brought  indoors  and  their  development  watched  day  by 
day.  Nature's  ways  of  protecting  the  buds  appear ;  hard 
scales,  gum,  wool,  unpleasant  scent  —  every  precaution 
against  cold,  wet,  insects,  and  other  enemies.  He  finds 
that  some  of  the  buds  make  flowers,  some  develop  into 
leaves,  others  contain  both  flowers  and  leaves.  He  learns 
that  flower  parts  are  altered  leaves,  finds  out  that  buds  are 
undeveloped  branches,  and  so  lias  a  way  to  account  for 
many  problems.  He  sees  that  trees  blossom.  This  was  left 
over  from  fall  for  answer.  The  continued  story  is  telling 
itself.  Later  he  finds  out  about  the  fruit  of  some  that  have 
puzzled  him  before.  Many  a  mother  at  home  is  surprised 
to  know  that  all  the  trees  blossom.  They  have  never  been 
quite  aware  of  it  till  their  attention  is  called  to  it  by  the 
children's  interest. 

Much  interesting  work  may  be  done  in  the  study  of  the 
little  common  plants  of  field  and  roadside  and  flower  gar- 
den. The  spring  flowers  are  simple,  largely.  The  com- 
posites the  child  should  be  taught  to  recognize  as  little 
bouquets.  Transplanting  brings  new  lights.  The  things 
necessary  for  growth  appear  more  clearly,  and  the  results 
of  crowding  in  garden  or  forest,  with  reasons  why  plants 
must  be  kept,  if  possible,  from  losing  leaves.  Knowledge 
of  many  of  such  things  will  come  naturally  and  easily. 
Planting  seeds  and  transplanting  bring  the  pupil  naturally 

[204] 


NATURE  STUDY 

to  other  ways  of  propagating.  He  gets  interested  in  the 
strawberry  bed,  in  making  layers  and  cuttings,  in  grafting, 
in  producing  changes  through  careful  selection.  Luther 
Burbank  becomes  a  wonderful  man  to  him.  The  moral 
lessons  to  be  drawn  are  worth  the  time  taken,  if  we  count 
no  other  values.  Many  experiments  may  be  tried  regard- 
ing conditions  necessary  for  plant  growth.  Seeds  may  be 
started  on  damp  blotting  paper,  sponges,  sawdust,  and  in 
soils  of  various  kinds.  They  may  be  kept  in  the  dark;  the 
light ;  bright  sunlight.  They  may  be  kept  very  wet ;  moist ; 
or  dry.  They  may  be  planted  in  sand,  clay,  humus,  or 
in  loams  in  which  sand,  clay,  and  other  ingredients  are 
prominent. 

Mineral  study.  This  leads  naturally  to  investigations  of 
various  kinds  of  soils,  the  treatment  needed  by  each,  and 
mixtures  that  are  profitable.  The  problems  of  worn-out 
soils,  rotation  of  crops,  favorite  soils  for  different  plants, 
are  ones  the  child  is  pleased  to  work  upon.  Places  where 
particular  soils  may  be  looked  for,  and  the  making  of  soil 
generally,  will  be  good  for  research  questions.  The  study 
of  soils  is  closely  interwoven  with  that  of  plants. 

Other  interesting  mineral  study  may  be  taken  in  con- 
nection with  quarrying,  mining,  manufacturing.  Slate,  coal, 
granite,  limestone,  any  of  the  building  stones,  and  any 
common  minerals  may  be  studied.  This  should  fit  in  finely 
with  the  geography  work.  The  metals  are  good  for  study 
and  give  a  strong  field  for  experiment  work  which  de- 
lights the  child.  The  metals  occur  so  frequently  in  con- 
nection with  daily  living  that  it  is  necessary  that  children 
should  have  a  good,  reasonable  acquaintance  with  their 
possibilities,  their  limitations,  and  the  right  ways  of  using 

[205] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

them.  Such  mineral  study  as  may  not  be  taken  in  con- 
nection with  the  plant  and  animal  study  may  well  occupy 
some  of  the  time  in  the  winter  term. 

Animal  study.  Study  of  animal  life  may  go  on  all  the 
year  round.  Much  of  it  may  be  done  in  direct  connection 
with  the  plant  work.  Part  of  it  may  form  the  subject  of 
separate  study.  The  work  should  include  the  common  do- 
mestic animals  —  cat,  dog,  horse,  cow,  pig,  and  hen  ;  also 
any  pet  animals,  like  the  rabbit  or  squirrel ;  and  the  com- 
mon household  pests,  like  the  rat,  mouse,  fox,  and  weasel. 
The  domestic  animals  of  other  countries  should  be  studied 
— the  elephant,  camel,  llama,  reindeer,  Eskimo  dog.  These 
last  should  be  taken  in  connection  with  their  work  in  the 
life  of  the  people.  This  is  closely  connected  with  the 
geography  study. 

Mode  of  working.  Certain  animals  should  be  taken  as 
types,  and  the  others  studied  with  reference  to  the  type. 
The  cat  and  dog,  for  example,  may  be  taken  as  types  of 
two  classes  of  flesh  eaters ;  the  horse  and  cow  as  plant 
eaters  ;  the  squirrel  or  rabbit  as  gnawers.  This  study  may 
be  done  partly  by  schoolroom  observation  and  partly  by 
assigning  observation  to  be  done  out  of  school.  No  set 
form  of  study  need  be  followed,  but  the  pupil  should  learn 
to  see  how  closely  physical  structure  and  habits  are  related. 
The  start  may  be  made  with  the  structure  or  with  the 
habits.  Studying  the  cat,  for  instance,  the  child  learns 
that  the  animal  is  so  built  that  it  may  best  get  its  food 
and  prolong  its  life.  Starting  with  the  food,  one  gets  at 
the  teeth,  tongue,  keenness  of  smell,  feelers,  eyes,  feet, 
covering.  The  cat  catches  its  prey  usually  by  night ;  it 
crouches,  creeps,  springs  —  unlike  the  dog,  who  boldly 

[206] 


NATURE  STUDY 

hunts  his  down.  Each  is  so  made,  physically,  as  to  be 
adapted  to  its  mode  of  life.  The  pupil  finds  it  interesting 
to  compare  cat  and  dog  in  structure  and  way  of  living. 
Starting  with  the  home  animals  as  types,  the  children  may 
later  easily  understand  the  more  common  wild  animals 
that  are  relations  of  these,  such  as  the  wolf,  lion,  tiger, 
bear,  and  deer. 

The  study  of  animals  should  include  a  knowledge  of 
the  good  and  ill  they  do  and  of  certain  obligations  that 
belong  to  the  children.  The  gnawing  animals  being  de- 
structive, the  good  they  do  must  be  weighed  with  the 
harm.  Many  of  them  are  useful  for  their  fur  covering. 
Many  of  them  are  almost  wholly  harmful,  and  extermina- 
tion must  be  their  fate.  The  cat  helps  in  the  destruction 
of  mice  and  such  vermin,  but  she  carries  diseases  and 
must  be  looked  out  for.  The  cat  also  does  great  harm 
in  destroying  birds,  who  are  our  benefactors  because  they 
eat  millions  of  harmful  seeds,  insects,  and  worms  each  year. 
If  we  weigh  good  and  ill  and  decide  to  keep  cats  or  other 
pets,  it  is  our  duty  to  care  for  them.  Having  made  them 
dependent  upon  us,  we  have  no  right  to  leave  them  to 
shift  for  themselves,  to  forget  to  give  them  food  and 
water,  or  to  fail  to  make  provision  for  them  when  we  go 
away  for  the  summer.  The  child  needs  to  know  such 
things,  and  he,  in  turn,  may  teach  his  mother. 

Smaller  forms  of  animal  life.  Study  of  the  common 
smaller  forms  of  animal  life,  —  like  the  fly,  mosquito,  ant, 
cricket,  grasshopper,  beetle,  bee,  moth,  —  should  be  made 
prominent.  Children  are  intensely  interested  in  such  study. 
These  forms  should  be  observed  for  their  structure  and 
manner  of  development  and  particularly  for  their  work  in 

[207] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

hindering  and  helping  man.  Such  work  will  justify  itself 
if,  for  instance,  only  a  few  children  are  awakened  to  the 
need  of  guarding  themselves  from  the  mosquito  in  such 
ways  as  by  drainage  and  by  looking  after  breeding  places. 
A  single  child,  who  is  moved  to  pour  kerosene  on  the 
barrel  of  rain  water  or  overturn  or  remove  tin  cans  or 
bits  of  broken  crockery  that  may  harbor  stagnant  water, 
may  teach  a  whole  neighborhood  or  at  least  make  it  less 
uncomfortable.  A  roomful  of  children,  taught  the  deadly 
work  of  flies  and  the  need  of  excluding  them  from  our 
houses  or  at  any  rate  from  our  food,  may  by  and  by  have 
a  perceptible  effect  upon  the  death  rate. 

Study  of  smaller  animal  forms  may  in  certain  localities 
include  study  of  the  home  pests  in  the  shape  of  bugs 
of  various  sorts.  In  many  homes  this  trouble  will  never 
be  reached  so  well  as  through  the  schools.  The  instruc- 
tion being  given  in  a  general  way,  no  offense  can  be  taken. 
The  children  may  be  aroused  to  the  way  these  things  are 
regarded  and  stirred  to  do  away  with  them.  They  should 
be  taught  that  absolute  cleanliness  is  the  first  requisite, 
and  that  constant  watchfulness  and  care  must  be  paid  as 
the  price  for  decency  and  comfort.  The  study  of  bacteria 
should  not  be  omitted,  and  many  helpful  truths  may  be 
driven  home  in  this  connection. 

Continued  schoolroom  observation.  Much  observation 
may  be  done  from  day  to  day  in  the  schoolroom.  Crickets 
and  grasshoppers  may  be  put,  with  a  big  sod,  on  a  plate 
under  a  common  wire  fly  screen  and  there  observed  through 
all  their  changes.  The  tiny  grasshoppers,  hatched  from  the " 
eggs  laid  in  the  sod  and  so  small  that  they  can  slip  be- 
tween the  wires,  prove  a  source  of  great  interest.   Bits  of 

[208] 


NATURE  STUDY 

apple,  fresh  grass,  and  such  food,  must  be  provided,  and 
watch  must  be  kept,  that  the  little  visitors  may  not  be 
uncomfortable.  Seeing  how  voraciously  they  eat,  helps  one 
to  understand  their  destructive  power. 

Cocoons,  brought  in  during  the  fall  and  kept  in  the 
schoolroom,  furnish  much  pleasure.  In  general  the  larger 
worms,  or  larvae,  are  the  best  for  the  purpose.  When  they 
are  found  crawling  they  are  about  through  with  their  feed- 
ing in  some  cases,  but  it  is  safe  to  put  in  leaves  of  the 
plant  near  which  they  are  found.  They  may  be  kept  in  a 
box  covered  with  mosquito  netting.  It  is  better  to  put  in 
some  earth,  as  many  of  them  spend  the  pupa  state  in  the 
ground.  Butterflies  may  sometimes  be  fed  on  sugar  and 
water,  which  they  will  take  from  the  finger  if  it  is  offered 
by  gently  touching  the  finger  smeared  with  the  mixture  to 
the  coiled  sucking  tube  of  the  little  creature. 

The  observation  of  the  schoolroom  should  always  be 
supplemented  by  outside  work.  The  pupil  should  be  taught 
to  observe  all  possible  insects  for  the  work  they  do — such 
as  eating  vegetation ;  destroying  other  forms  of  animal  life ; 
assisting,  annoying,  or  endangering  people ;  helping  ferti- 
lization of  plants  by  means  of  carrying  pollen.  This  aids 
him  in  deciding  which  forms  should  be  destroyed  and 
which  protected. 

Children  should  be  trained  not  to  fear  needlessly,  nor 
yet  to  handle  too  freely ;  this  because  of  danger  to  health 
and  also  for  fear  of  unintentional  cruelty.  Kindness  should 
be  emphasized.  Nothing  should  be  tortured,  nothing  kept 
in  the  schoolroom  without  proper  care.  Teachers  are  often 
more  careless  in  this  last  respect  than  children,  being  fre- 
quently known  to  neglect  animals  brought  in  for  study. 

[209] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

The  aquarium.  An  aquarium  in  school  is  very  valuable. 
These  may  be  made  and  stocked  quite  easily.  Directions 
for  making  are  well  given  in  Hodge's  "  Nature  Study," 
Articles  in  the  School  Arts  Book  for  October,  1904,  and 
September,  1909,  give  excellent  suggestions  for  their  care. 
I  have  used  for  the  schoolroom  some  made  by  Hodge's 
directions,  some  goldfish  globes,  and  various  glass  dishes. 
These  dishes  may  serve  also  as  vivariums.  In  these  have 
been  kept  fishes,  tadpoles,  snails,  turtles,  newts,  lizards, 
clams,  and,  for  a  while,  tiny  snakes,  in  which  the  children 
became  much  interested.  The  most  satisfactory  receptacle 
we  have  found  to  be  the  rectangular  aquarium  described 
by  Hodge.  Though  it  is  difficult  to  get  a  perfectly  self- 
adjusting  one,  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  have  one  that  will 
serve  the  purpose.  Little  water  plants  may  be  found  in 
any  brook  or  pond,  and  they  adapt  themselves  easily  to 
the  conditions.  It  is  better  not  to  try  to  keep  too  many 
kinds  of  life  together,  nor  to  have  too  large  specimens. 

Bird  study.  Of  all  forms  of  animal  life,  perhaps  none 
so  interests  the  children  as  birds.  Observation  of  them 
must  be  carried  on  largely  out  of  school,  but  in-school  talks 
will  help  such  observation.  From  the  first  grades,  where  a 
fiower-and-bird  calendar  may  be  made  from  the  children's 
descriptions  of  birds  and  flowers  seen,  to  the  highest 
grades,  where  systematic  observation  may  be  reported,  there 
is  no  lag  in  the  interest.  The  bird-and-flower  calendar  may 
consist  simply  of  the  names,  put  in  the  calendar  squares 
in  place  of  the  figure  for  the  day  they  were  first  seen,  or 
the  more  ambitious  teacher  may  have  the  picture  of  the 
bird,  insect,  or  flower  in  colored  crayons.  Bird  study  may 
include  the  teaching  of  many  things  that  will  make  birds 

[210] 


NATURE  STUDY 

more  comfortable,  such  as  making  bird  houses,  knowing 
what  to  do  when  Httle  birds  are  found,  and  feeding  when 
food  is  scarce.  Desire  to  protect  the  birds  will  come  with 
the  knowledge  of  their  attractiveness  and  of  their  use 
to  man. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  all  forms  of  animal  life 
are  of  great  interest  to  children,  and  by  acquainting  them 
with  the  part  of  each  in  the  economic  life  of  people  one 
may  do  a  great  work  for  the  future. 

Natural  phenomena.  Work  in  natural  phenomena  be- 
longs with  nature  study  and  has  been  referred  to  already 
in  connection  with  geography.  Weather  observations, 
simple  study  of  air  and  water  in  their  various  manifesta- 
tions, much  work  of  this  kind,  may  be  done  casually ;  and 
much  more  in  regular  geography  lessons. 

Time  and  place  of  nature  lessons.  It  has  been  indicated 
that  much  of  this  work  is  really  so  connected  with  geogra- 
phy and  physiology  that  it  may  be  taken  with  those  sub- 
jects. Much  more  may  go  along  with  the  language  and 
reading  and  be  closely  connected  with  the  drawing.  Con- 
siderable may  be  done  at  opening-exercises  time,  morning 
and  afternoon ;  and  Friday  afternoon  gives  an  opportunity 
for  the  work.  Very  much  may  be  taken  casually,  a  word 
here,  a  hint  there.  In  schools  with  crowded  programs  — 
rural  schools  —  a  good  way  of  giving  it  is  to  assign  certain 
questions  for  which  answers  are  to  be  found.  The  answers 
may  be  discovered  in  the  woods,  the  field,  the  pond  or 
brook,  by  the  roadside,  in  the  home  or  school  garden. 
The  little  ones  may  find  what  they  can,  the  older  ones 
more.  They  may  learn  at  recesses,  at  noons,  on  their  way 
to  and  from  school,  and  the  younger  children  will  find  it 

[211] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

an  interesting  means  of  occupying  themselves  when  they 
are  sent  out  during  school  hours.  Study  of  certain  things 
may  continue  for  days  or  weeks.  Jackman's  "  Nature 
Study  for  Common  Schools "  suggests  many  excellent 
questions. 

Experiments.  Simple  experiments  may  be  carried  on 
day  by  day.  These  may  be  concluded  immediately,  as 
when  we  melt  lead  or  make  a  filter ;  or  they  may  go  on 
for  a  long  time,  as  when  we  develop  twigs  or  grow  seeds 
or  watch  butterfly  changes.  The  experiment  appeals 
directly  to  the  senses  and  therefore  furnishes  one  of  the 
best  means  of  teaching.  It  also  calls  for  strong  exercise 
of  judgment  and  of  reasoning.  Incidentally  it  trains  to 
truthfulness. 

The  apparatus  needed  for  such  experiments  is  usually 
very  crude,  but  children  may  make  apparatus  for  rather 
complicated  experiments  in  physics  if  the  teacher  is  suffi- 
ciently interested  to  encourage  them.  Electric  lights  and 
bells,  steam  engines,  water  wheels,  pumps  of  various  sorts, 
are  often  the  product  of  rather  small  boys. 

Aids.  Pictures,  drawings,  and  specimens  of  many  kinds 
may  be  used  helpfully  in  this  work.  They  need  not  be 
beautiful,  nor  elaborate,  but  they  should  be  exact. 

General.  No  teacher  is  expected  to  do  all  the  work  here 
indicated.  Abundant  material  is  suggested,  from  which 
choice  may  be  made.  The  main  thing  to  produce  is  inter- 
est in  nature.  Out  of  this  will  come  the  other  things. 
Nature  study  will  increase  knowledge,  being  one  of  the 
best  information  subjects  in  the  curriculum.  It  will  train 
mentally  —  to  observation,  expression,  judgment,  reason- 
ing, habits  of  investigation.    It  lays  the  right  foundation 

[212] 


NATURE  STUDY 

for  correct  memory  and  inventive  imagination.  It  teaches 
a  love  for  the  beautiful  and  develops  the  habit  of  exact 
truth-telling.  It  teaches  sympathy,  mercy,  kindness,  abun- 
dant reverence,  and,  beyond  most  subjects,  it  gives  pleasure 
—  pleasure  in  the  present  study,  and  future  pleasure  by 
arousing  the  child  to  the  wonders  of  the  world  about  him. 
It  means  work  for  the  teacher,  though  not  so  much  as  she 
thinks.   And  after  all  why  should  not  the  teacher  work  ? 

REFERENCES 

Bailey.    Lessons  with  Plants.   The  Macmillan  Company. 

Ball.    Star-Land.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Beal.    Seed  Dispersal.    Ginn  and  Company. 

BoYDEN.     Nature  Study  for  Elementary  Grades.    New  England 

Publishing  Company. 
Chapman.    Handbook  of  Birds.    D.  Appleton  and  Company. 
CoMSTOCK.    Handbook  of   Nature  Study.     Comstock   Publishing 

Company. 
Cornell  Nature  Leaflets.  Bureau  of  Nature  Study,  Cornell  University. 
Coulter  and  Patterson.    Practical  Nature  Study.  D.  Appleton 

and  Company. 
CuMMiNGS.     Nature  Study  in  Primary  Grades.    American  Book 

Company. 
Dana.    How  to  know  the  Wild  Flowers.    Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 
Hodge.    Nature  Study  and  Life.    Ginn  and  Company. 
Jackman.    Nature  Study  for  Common  Schools.    Henry  Holt  and 

Company.  ^ 

Longmans'  Object  Lessons.    Longmans,  Green,  &  Co. 
McMuRRY.    Special  Method  in  Science.   The  Macmillan  Company. 
Mathews.     Field  Book  of  Wild  Birds  and  their  Music.    G.  P. 

Putnam's  Sons. 
MoRLEY.    Insect  Folk.    2  volumes.    Ginn  and  Company. 
Overton  and  Hill.    Nature  Study.   American  Book  Company. 
Parsons.    How  to  know  the  Ferns.    Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 
Rick.    Object  Lessons,  Volume  H.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
Roth.   A  First  Book  of  Forestry.   Ginn  and  Company. 

[213] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

School  Arts  Magazine.    School  Arts  Publishing  Company, 
ScuDDER.    Guide  to  Butterflies.    Henry  Holt  and  Company. 
WiLLCOX.    Land  Birds  of  New  England.     Lothrop,  Lee  &  Shep- 

ard  Co. 
Williams.    Gardens  and  their  Meaning.    Ginn  and  Company. 
Wilson.     Nature  Study  in   Elementary  Schools.     The  Macmillan 

Company. 
Wood.    Animals:    Their  Relation  and   Use  to  Man.     Ginn  and 

Company. 


[214] 


CHAPTER  XX 
DRAWING 

Neglect  of  the  subject.  Drawing  is  a  subject  still  neglected 
in  many  schools.  This  neglect  is  due  partly  to  lack  of  time 
and  partly  to  the  teacher's  ignorance  either  of  its  value  or 
of  ways  of  going  about  it.  Drawing  may  be  handled  in 
such  a  way  as  to  take  very  little  of  the  program  time,  if 
one  so  chooses.  It  may  be  used  mostly  in  connection  with 
the  regular  subjects  of  the  school  day,  and  much  of  the 
child's  work  may  be  done  during  his  study  periods.  Sug- 
gestions may  be  made  by  the  teacher  without  directly 
encroaching  upon  the  other  work.  If  the  teacher  who  is 
doubtful  of  its  value,  or  who  feels  uncertain  of  her  ability, 
will  but  make  a  beginning,  she  will  find  enthusiasm  and 
power  increasing  rapidly.  Of  course  it  is  much  better, 
when  circumstances  allow,  to  have  a  regular  period  for 
drawing,  and  in  most  schools  this  may  be  arranged  for, 
without  cutting  unduly  into  time  needed  for  other  work. 

Interest,  the  first  step.  First,  the  child  should  be  made 
interested  in  drawing.  One  of  the  best  ways  to  produce 
this  interest  is  for  the  teacher  to  draw  as  freely  as  may  be, 
in  connection  with  all  lessons.  Crude  little  sketches  that 
illustrate  the  work  being  taken  are  very  effective  and  may 
be  done  by  most  teachers,  even  those  not  greatly  gifted, 
as  often  not  much  artistic  power  is  needed  to  secure  what 
is  wanted.   Teachers  should  not  hesitate  to  make  attempts 

[215] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

to  illustrate.  Usually  the  cTiildren  are  not  critical,  the 
subjects  being  taught  may  often  be  made  much  clearer, 
and  the  child  is  almost  sure  to  get  an  interest  in  trying  to 
draw  for  himself.  The  little  child  is  not  afraid  to  draw 
anything.  If  he  is  encouraged  to  advance,  he  easily  grows 
into  the  habit  of  using  this  means  of  expression  as  freely 
as  talking.  "  I  can't  easily  describe  it,  but  I  can  show  you 
with  the  crayon,"  may  come  to  be  the  attitude  of  many 
children  instead  of  one  or  two. 

Interest  being  aroused,  we  have  found  a  sure  way  to 
get  the  pupil  to  draw  and  have  also  discovered  some  sub- 
jects for  him  to  try.  In  addition  to  class  illustration  of 
oral  work,  he  may  draw  to  illustrate  all  his  papers  on  vari- 
ous subjects.  He  may  make  large  sketches  on  separate 
sheets  of  paper  to  accompany  the  written  ones,  or  he  may 
make  little  sketches  on  the  written  paper  itself.  This 
idea  expanded  gives  us  the  booklet  to  which  reference 
has  been  made  elsewhere.  It  has  a  marked  effect  in 
producing  good  papers. 

Sources  of  subjects.  Much  work  may  be  done  in  draw- 
ing. Subjects  may  be  found  everywhere.  Spring  and 
fall  flowers,  fruits,  vegetables,  sprouting  plants  or  twigs, 
seed  vessels  of  all  kinds,  weeds,  grasses,  anything  in 
plant  life,  may  be  used.  This  work  springs  out  of  the 
nature  study  easily  and  may  be  much  employed  in  that 
connection.  Study  of  nature  also  suggests  landscape  pic- 
tures of  all  kinds,  from  sunset  and  single  trees  to  a  rather 
elaborate  composition.  Along  with  the  nature  study  may 
go  pictures  of  all  forms  of  animal  life,  —  insects,  birds, 
and  the  larger  animals,  —  the  drawing  to  be  done  from  the 
objects  themselves  usually.    Drawing,  as  springing  out  of 

[216] 


DRAWING 

the  language  work  or  forming  a  basis  for  it,  suggests  rep- 
resentation of  all  forms  of  activity  and  life  and  so  opens 
a  broad  field.  The  daily  happenings  in  the  life  of  the 
child  give  him  for  subjects  common  household  utensils, 
toys,  children  in  various  poses,  and  special  celebration  fea- 
tures as  suggested  by  the  fair,  the  circus.  Memorial  Day, 
Washington's  Birthday,  or  Christmas.  His  industrial  work 
gives  abundant  chance  for  drawing.  He  draws  plans  for 
objects,  selects  color  schemes  for  them  from  nature,  and 
works  out  as  many  as  possible  of  them  with  suitable 
materials. 

Many  things  which  are  often  treated  under  the  head  of 
drawing  have  been  here  touched  upon  under  Industrial 
Work,  Desk  Work,  and  in  other  places ;  but  it  should 
be  remembered  that  all  sides  —  paper  folding  and  cut- 
ting, modeling,  coloring,  constructing,  illustrating,  picture 
study,  everything  of  the  sort  —  belong  with  the  drawing 
and  serve  to  make  a  correlation  possible  between  it  and 
most  school  subjects.  Under  the  drawing  also  may  be 
included  much  work  like  that  suggested  in  the  general 
exercises,  like  flower  selection  and  arrangement,  study  of 
pleasing  vase  and  pottery  forms,  practice  in  choosing  re- 
lated objects  for  groups,  study  of  attractive  effects  in  house 
decoration  and  in  dress,  with  many  like  things  which  may 
serve  to  improve  the  taste  of  public-school  children  and 
through  them  of  the  people  at  large. 

Material.  As  many  mediums  of  expression  as  possible 
should  be  employed  in  the  drawing.  The  one  that  best  ex- 
presses the  required  idea  is  the  one  to  use.  Some  things 
call  emphatically  for  color,  while  others  tell  their  story 
better  through  aid  of  the  pencil.    Sometimes  one  has  to 

[217] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

employ  the  medium  that  is  available,  and  sometimes  dif- 
ferent members  of  a  class  may  work  with  different  tools. 
The  common  cedar  lead  pencils  are  capable  of  much,  and 
several  degrees  of  hardness  may  be  found  among  them, 
though  most  of  them  are  soft  and  work  well  for  ordinary 
representation. 

Colored  pencils  and  colored  crayons,  such  as  are  found 
in  boxes  for  a  few  cents,  work  splendidly.  Of  course  more 
expensive  pencils  and  crayons  are  better  —  Dixon's,  for 
example,  furnishing  an  excellent  medium.  It  is  to  be 
remembered  that  many  of  the  crayons  are  injurious,  or 
even  poisonous,  if  swallowed,  so  little  children  should  be 
cautioned  constantly  about  putting  them  in  the  mouth. 
Many  children  have  little  boxes  of  colored  crayons  or 
paints  at  home,  which  they  are  glad  to  bring  for  use  at 
school.  In  one  school  the  children  aroused  to  interest  in 
the  work  brought  colored  crayons,  then  water  colors.  The 
idea  spread,  and  soon  all  were  working,  the  teacher  learn- 
ing with  the  children.  Water-color  paints  are  very  satis- 
factory for  use,  and  many  of  them  are  cheap.  Though  it 
is  nice  to  have  really  good  colors,  the  cheaper  ones 
may  be  made  to  serve  very  well.  Good  gray  pictures,  or 
pictures  in  "  values  "  as  they  are  now  called,  may  be  se- 
cured by  the  use  of  common  ink  and  brush  —  a  medium 
easily  obtained. 

Most  drawings  should  be  made  upon  sheets  of  paper  of 
varying  colors,  shapes,  and  sizes.  These  are  far  superior 
to  books  in  every  way.  The  cheapest  manila  drawing 
paper  is  of  greatest  general  use,  since  it  furnishes  a  rather 
soft  background  color  and  takes  pencil  or  paint  easily. 
The  blackboard  should  be  employed  also,  and  blackboard 

[218] 


DRAWING 

sketching  is  fascinating  work.  Many  striking  effects  may 
be  produced  with  the  side  of  a  bit  of  white  or  colored 
crayon  used  boldly  upon  the  board.  Whitney's  book 
called  "  Blackboard  Sketching  "  furnishes  many  sugges- 
tions for  board  work. 

The  children  should  be  cautioned  to  use  care  and  neat- 
ness in  handling  materials.  It  is  well  to  provide  blotters 
and  pieces  of  soft  cloth,  that  all  sloppy  work  may  be  looked 
after  immediately.  Even  ink  spilled  upon  the  floor  may 
be  largely  removed  with  blotters  followed  by  a  washing 
with  clear  water,  if  the  accident  is  attended  to  at  once. 
If  left,  one  has  to  have  recourse  to  sand  papering  or 
scraping  with  glass. 

The  lesson.  In  giving  the  lesson,  the  teacher  should 
apply  her  common  sense  and  pedagogical  knowledge. 
She  should  expect  the  children  to  do  the  best  work  of 
which  they  are  capable  and  should  direct  the  lesson  to  the 
best  of  her  ability,  not  merely  give  out  materials  and  then 
leave  the  class  to  meet  all  the  problems  alone.  She  should 
give  certain  general  directions  from  time  to  time,  but  most 
of  her  suggestions  will  need  to  be  individual.  These  should 
be  given  in  a  low  tone  to  each  child.  It  is  not  necessary 
for  all  to  hear  every  direction,  and  a  constant  running  fire 
of  suggestion  and  criticism  not  only  confuses  the  class  as 
a  whole  but  renders  it  dull  to  those  directions  which  it  is 
really  necessary  for  all  to  hear. 

The  teacher  may  often  take  the  brush  or  pencil  and 
show  the  child  how  to  get  an  effect,  but  nearly  all  the  work 
should  be  done  by  the  pupil  instead  of  by  the  teacher. 
Assistance  should  be  divided.  It  is  not  wise  to  work  too 
long  with  one  child.    Constantly  the  children  should  be 

[219] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

made  to  look  at  the  object  they  are  trying  to  draw,  and  the 
teacher  should  not  so  interpose  herself  between  them  and 
it  that  they  cannot  possibly  see  it.  When  a  pupil  secures 
a  good  effect  he  should  be  made  immediately  to  put 
down  his  tools.  If  he  does  not,  he  soon  sees  another 
touch  to  be  made  that  will  probably  spoil  his  picture.  It 
may  often  be  put  at  once  on  exhibition,  to  stimulate  the 
rest  of  the  class. 

Drawing  should  train  to  artistic  power.  Drawing  is  sup- 
posed to  train  the  child's  artistic  power ;  the  teacher  should 
try  to  have  it  do  so.  In  arranging  objects  for  drawing,  care 
should  be  used  to  make  the  arrangement  pleasing.  There 
are  good  and  bad  ways  of  pinning  a  spray  upon  a  sheet 
of  paper  to  serve  as  a  model.  Teachers  should  train  them- 
selves to  look  for  the  pleasing  way.  There  is  a  great  dif- 
ference in  the  shapes  of  paper  required  for  different  objects. 
If  the  specimen  seems  to  call  for  a  panel,  the  drawing 
should  be  so  made.  There  is  a  difference  in  the  kinds  of 
lines  needed  to  produce  effective  drawings.  For  example, 
mechanical  drawing  calls  for  a  hard,  fine  line ;  while  in 
outlines,  what  is  wanted  almost  always  is  a  very  soft,  broad, 
gray  line,  better  made  with  the  side  of  the  pencil.  Often 
teachers  permit  the  children  to  grip  the  pencil  tightly  and 
to  produce  hard,  black  lines,  with  no  attention  to  beauty 
lost  thereby.  A  hundred  little  ideas  regarding  things  like 
these  may  be  picked  up  by  any  teacher  if  she  observes 
good  drawings,  which  are  easily  to  be  found  in  these  days, 
and  studies  the  various  helps  in  books  which  are  also  easily 
obtained.  The  Prang  Textbooks  of  Art  Instruction  fur- 
nish a  great  deal  of  help  to  a  teacher,  and  the  School  Arts 
Magazine  contains  much  information  and  inspiration. 

[  220] 


DRAWING 

Nevertheless,  without  such  aids  it  is  perfectly  possible 
to  get  pretty  good  drawing  results  if  one  sets  about  secur- 
ing it  from  the  children  as  a  means  of  free  expression. 
The  little  people  should  draw  from  observation,  memory, 
imagination.  They  should  tell  stories  of  various  sorts  by 
means  of  the  work.  The  teacher  should  have  high  ideals 
and  expect  much  from  the  pupils.  She  should  not  be  in 
the  mood  expressed  by  "  That 's  pretty  good  for  a  small 
child"  or  "One  can't  expect  much  from  babies"  any  more 
in  drawing  than  in  writing.  She  should  demand  reasonably 
good  work,  though  she  may  often  fail  to  get  it.  Some  of 
the  results  will  be  startlingly  effective.  Most  of  the  draw- 
ings will  be  only  moderately  good  considered  as  works  of 
art,  but  power  may  be  increasing.  The  eyes  of  the  child  are 
opened  to  see  ;  the  hand  becomes  skilled  to  tell ;  the  brain, 
which  presides  over  both  eye  and  hand,  grows  steadily  in 
power.  Though  an  occasional  child  can  never  learn  to 
draw,  yet  even  in  such  a  case  the  time  is  not  wasted. 

REFERENCES 

Batchelder.   The  Principles  of  Design.   Inland  Printer  Company. 

Cross.    Free-Hand  Drawing.    Ginn  and  Con^any. 

Daniels.    Teaching  of  Ornament.   J.  C.  Witter  Co. 

Prang.    A  Course  in  Water  Color.    The  Prang  Educational  Co. 

Praxg.    Textbooks  of  Art  Instruction.    The  Prang  Educational  Co. 

School  Arts  Magazine.    School  Arts  Publishing  Company. 

Seegmiller.  Applied  Arts  Drawing  Books.  Atkinson,  Mentzer,  and 

Company. 
Shaylor.    Book  of  Alphabets.    Ginn  and  Company. 
Whitney.   Blackboard  Sketching.    Milton  Bradley  Company. 


[221] 


CHAPTER  XXI 

WRITING 

Writing  not  to  be  begun  too  early.  Children  should  not 
begin  to  write  too  early.  During  the  first  weeks  in  school 
there  are  so  many  ways  in  which  they  may  gain  knowledge 
without  tax  that  it  seems  wiser  to  omit  writing  altogether, 
but  when  the  work  is  well  established,  getting  ready  to  write 
may  be  begun.  First-  and  second-grade  children  have  no 
business  to  write  too  well.  Their  work,  instead  of  present- 
ing copy-book  perfection  as  it  too  often  does,  should  have 
the  same  relation  to  the  finished  writing  product  that  a 
child's  drawings  at  this  age  usually  bear  to  the  results  ob- 
tained in  advanced  classes.  This  does  not  mean  that  the 
teacher  should  not  have  high  ideals,  but  that  she  should 
not  expect  muscular  control.  She  should  want  the  child's 
best,  but  not  unreasonable  marvels.  Doing  small  writing 
calls  for  such  tense  muscular  adjustment  that  it  proves  a 
fertile  source  of  trouble  for  the  eyes  and  the  whole  nervous 
system.  Watching  a  little  child  who  is  working  freely  with 
pencil  or  crayon,  one  observes  that  he  makes  wild,  aimless 
movements,  producing  nothing  in  particular,  —  a  mere 
snarl  of  lines,  — but  that  he  works  with  a  large  swing  of  the 
muscles  always.  Watching  a  class  of  little  children  write, 
one  sees  them  shaping  each  letter  with  great  care  and  work- 
ing, usually,  with  movements  of  the  fingers  only.  There  is 
a  place  where  the  first-described  movement  ends  and  the 

[  222  ] 


WRITING 

child  really  tries  to  make  something,  but  there  is  a  distinct 
difference  between  what  he  does  naturally,  even  at  this 
time,  and  what  he  is  often  called  upon  to  attempt  in  his 
writing  lessons.  Children  have  little  need  of  writing  as  a 
vehicle  of  expression  below  the  third  grade,  so  the  work 
for  the  first  year  or  so  should  consist  of  preparation  for 
future  writing  rather  than  writing  itself.  Teachers  usually 
set  their  standard  for  lower-grade  writing  too  high,  just 
as  they  place  it  too  low  for  drawing,  expecting  almost  per- 
fect formation  of  letters  in  writing  but  accepting  daubs  in 
drawing  without  surprise.  We  need  a  readjustment  in 
both  cases. 

Character  of  the  writing.  Thought  of  the  child's  natu- 
ral mode  of  development  brings  to  mind  that  the  brain 
centers  that  govern  the  large  muscular  movements  develop 
earliest.  Thought  of  what  we  wish  to  obtain  in  higher- 
grade  writing  suggests  that,  freedom  of  movement  being 
then  desirable,  we  may  early  work  along  natural  lines  with 
profit.  Recent  ideas  governing  the  teaching  of  writing  are 
following  this  theory  and  making  the  work  consist  largely 
of  exercises  tending  to  produce  muscular  freedom  and  con- 
trol. For  this  work,  use  should  be  made  of  crayon  and 
blackboard  and  later  of  large  sheets  of  unruled  paper,  with 
the  big  kindergarten  crayons  or  extra-large  writing  pencils. 
These  implements  the  child  may  grasp  with  his  small 
fingers,  without  the  viselike  grip  with  which  he  holds  the 
ordinary  pencil.  His  writing  may  be  as  big  as  he  pleases, 
and  if  crooked,  it  is  no  matter,  since  it  will  grow  smaller 
and  straighter  as  rapidly  as  is  necessary. 

Yet,  to  help  in  getting  uniform  size  and  straight  writing 
easily,  after  a  few  weeks  of  absolutely  free  work  at  the 

[223] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

board,  it  is  well  to  make  lines  from  four  to  six  inches 
apart,  between  which  the  movement  exercises  may  be 
made.  These  lines  should  be  placed  low  enough  so  that 
the  child  may  reach  without  difficulty,  and  he  should  stand 
at  arm's  length  from  the  board.  Above  each  pupil's  space 
should  appear  a  copy  of  the  required  exercise,  and  it  is 
better  for  him  to  watch  the  teacher  as  she  makes  these 
copies.  The  lines  may  be  drawn  very  quickly  if  one  makes 
use  of  a  music-staff  marker  or  a  similar  marker  which 
a  teacher  may  make  for  herself.  All  that  is  needed  is  a 
little  wooden  frame  that  will  support  two  crayons  at  the 

desired  distance  apart  — 
simply  a  stick  for  a 
handle,  fastened  to  a 
stick  with  two  holes 
bored  through  it.  ^ 

]       After   a   short    time 


C 


U  LI  part  of  the  writing  may 

be  done  on  paper  which  has  been  creased  to  indicate  the 
width  of  space  for  the  exercises.  The  spaces  should  be 
kept  broad  for  a  long  time,  because  if  they  are  made 
narrow,  the  child  falls  at  once  into  a  finger  movement. 
Till  writing  with  the  free-arm  movement  has  become 
mechanical,  broad  spaces  are  absolutely  necessary. 

Introduced  to  writing  in  this  easy  way,  the  little  pupil 
may  do  many  of  the  exercises  which  are  employed  in  ad- 
vanced grades.  He  may  make  free-hand  circles,  right  and 
left  ovals,  and  all  the  usual  movement  exercises.  After  a 
little  while  he  may  begin  to  make  the  letters  which  involve 
the  movements  taken,  doing  first  the  exercise,  then  the  let- 
ter. Ovals  connected  in  a  line  —  eeee  —  prepare  for  letters 

[224] 


WRITING 

like  /  and  e ;  this  exercise  —  nnti  —  for  m  and  n  ;  its  re- 
verse —  uuu  —  for  ?',  t,  u.  This  work  should  all  be  of  good 
size  and  freely  drawn.  The  pupils  will  naturally  make  their 
writing  exercises  with  a  bold,  free  movement.  The  teacher 
should  never  forget  that  its  purpose  is  to  secure  muscular 
ease  and  power.  One  who  watches  it  is  surprised  to  see 
how  easily  the  freedom  of  movement  comes  and  how  gaily 
and  with  how  light  a  touch  the  child  strikes  in  the  letters. 
The  ease  attained  with  only  a  few  weeks  of  practice  is 
quite  marvelous.  When  the  pupil  takes  the  various  exer- 
cises readily  and  can  apply  them  to  letters,  he  may  begin 
to  write  words. 

The  method  of  doing  the  writing  need  vary  little  as  the 
work  goes  on.  No  essential  change  is  necessary.  The 
writing  grows  finer,  the  lines  straighter,  the  letters  more 
perfect  in  shape.  The  pencil  gradually  grows  a  little 
smaller,  though  a  large  implement  is  always  better  for 
writing.    The  pen,  by  and  by,  is  substituted  for  the  pencil. 

To  start  a  child  writing  at  once  with  a  pen  is  to  equip 
him  with  the  most  difficult  instrument  at  the  start,  which  is 
contrary  to  the  usual  way  of  going  about  the  taking  up  of 
any  subject.  When  the  pen  comes  into  use,  a  penholder 
which  is  rather  large  at  the  base  is  better  than  the  small 
one.  The  Boston  guard,  a  rubber  that  has  three  fiat 
places  where  the  thumb  and  two  fingers  are  to  rest  and 
that  is  fitted  to  the  penholder,  is  an  excellent  device.  This 
may  be  used  far  enough  in  the  grades  for  correct  pen 
holding  to  become  mechanical. 

Position.  The  pupil  needs  to  sit  erect  with  feet  on  the 
floor.  The  position  in  which  he  faces  the  desk  has  advan- 
tages, though  some  use  a  slightly  sidewise  position.    The 

[225] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

shoulders  should  be  kept  level.  The  right  arm  should  go 
onto  the  desk  far  enough  to  allow  of  free  movement,  and 
the  left  should  also  rest  there  lightly.  The  left  hand  should 
move  the  paper  as  needed.  The  writing  books  and  manuals 
give  many  good  illustrations,  and  by  means  of  these  the 
teacher  may  easily  learn  correct  positions  and  a  right  order 
of  progress.  It  is  often  well  to  give  general  directions  for 
position,  though  here,  as  well  as  in  the  drawing  class,  direc- 
tions for  individual  betterment  of  position,  movement,  and 
form  should  be  given  quietly  to  the  individual  alone.  A 
nervous  child  is  often  greatly  harassed  by  the  continual 
grind  of  the  teacher's  voice  and  also  grows  so  used  to  the 
sound  of  it  that  he  fails  to  listen  all  the  time  to  what  she 
is  saying.  Because  of  this,  directions  are  not  heeded,  and 
the  pupil  is  blamed  for  what  is  really  the  teacher's  fault. 

Precept,  example,  and  constant  practice  needed.  The 
teacher  should  write  much  upon  the  board  so  the  children 
may  see  what  is  wanted  and  how  to  get  it.  It  is  easy  to 
do  good  board  work  with  a  little  practice.  Enthusiasm  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher  will  produce  enthusiasm  on  the 
part  of  the  child,  which  is  a  particularly  important  thing 
in  learning  to  write.  If  a  pupil  wants  to  write  well  and  is 
told  how,  he  will  usually  become  able.  Power  to  control 
and  guide  the  muscles  is  of  more  value  than  perfect  writ- 
ing, yet  more  and  more  the  child  should  be  brought  to  a 
state  of  mind  in  which  he  desires  most  earnestly  not  only 
to  write  easily  and  rapidly  but  also  to  write  well. 

It  is  not  sufficient  to  write  in  a  correct  way  during  the 
writing  period  and  carelessly  for  other  exercises.  All  writ- 
ing should  be  done  as  well  as  possible  and  as  quickly  as 
is  compatible  with  good  work.    Writing  is  needed  as  an 

[226] 


WRITING 

implement,  and  one  should  learn  to  use  it  as  a  means  of 
as  rapid  expression  as  may  be. 

Often,  in  grammar  grades,  rapid  growth  brings  inability 
to  control  the  muscles,  and  the  effect  shows  in  the  writing. 
The  teacher  should  understand  this  and  have  patience,  yet 
in  a  kindly  way  she  should  bring  the  pupil  to  the  place 
where  he  may  be  depended  upon  to  write  his  best. 

The  teacher's  example  should  encourage  neat,  careful 
writing.  Many  teachers  present  such  poor  writing  in  all 
their  work  as  to  completely  destroy  the  value  of  the  writing 
lessons.  Others  put  on  formal  board  work  carefully,  but  any 
writing  for  illustration  of  the  points  of  the  lesson  is  done 
hastily  and  carelessly.  Precept  and  example  should  go  hand 
in  hand,  and  the  teaching  should  be  continuous.  It  is 
worth  much  time  and  trouble  to  make  the  children  skillful  in 
the  art  of  writing.  To  write  easily  and  well  is  an  accomplish- 
ment that  produces  great  satisfaction  in  life  after  the  school 
days  are  over. 

REFERENCES 

Berry  Writing  Books.    B.  D.  Berry  Co. 

Clark.    Graded  Writing  Textbooks.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Clark.    Public  School  Penmanship.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Hammock.  New  Barnes  Writing  Books.  The  A.  S.  Barnes  Com- 
pany. 

Mills.    Business  Penmanship.    American  Book  Company. 

Palmer  Method  of  Writing.    A.  N.  Palmer  Co. 

Shaylor.    Book  of  Alphabets.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Thorndike.  Thorndike  Handwriting  Scale.  Columbia  University 
Press,  New  York. 

Zaner  Writing  Manuals.   Zaner  &  Bloser  Co. 


[227] 


CHAPTER  XXII 

MUSIC 

Ways  and  means.  It  is  surprising  to  know  how  many 
teachers  have  no  music  in  their  schools,  not  even  in  con- 
nection with  morning  exercises,  and  how  many  others  have 
it  only  in  that  connection.  Musical  power  is  in  a  sense 
a  heaven-bestowed  gift,  and  people  lacking  it  are  to  be 
pitied,  but  even  nonmusical  teachers  may  have  music  to 
a  slight  degree  in  school  if  they  are  willing  to  work  for 
it  as  much  as  for  other  things.  Many  teachers  who  regard 
themselves  as  unfit  to  teach  music  have  sufficient  latent 
power  so  that  a  few  lessons  might  qualify  them  to  do  some 
simple  work  in  the  subject.  Others,  who  lack  power  to 
sing  but  have  a  musical  ear,  may  teach  the  children  by 
note,  using  the  pitch  pipe  and  presenting  all  new  exer- 
cises and  songs  by  note  from  the  board,  book,  or  chart. 
There  are  usually  in  school  some  really  musical  children, 
and  judicious  use  may  be  made  of  these,  having  them  sing 
the  exercises  as  a  model  for  the  others.  If  the  teacher  is 
absolutely  lacking  in  both  voice  and  ear,  sometimes  she 
has  to  frankly  say  so  and  to  intrust  whatever  work  is  done 
in  music  to  some  older  child  who  is  gifted  in  this  line.  She 
should  not  make  the  mistake  of  resigning  the  whole  thing 
in  such  a  case.  She,  herself,  should  discipline  her  school 
and  furnish  teaching  suggestions  and  stimulation  as  in 
any  other  class. 

[228] 


MUSIC 

Need  of  stimulus.  Too  often  both  teacher  and  pupils 
have  the  idea  that  since  music  is  an  aesthetic  study  and 
appeals  so  strongly  to  the  feelings,  it  need  be  attended  to 
only  as  the  children  feel  like  doing  it.  This  is  wrong. 
Music  often  has  to  be  pounded  in,  in  the  face  of  indif- 
ference or  even  opposition.  All  methods  should  be  sought 
for  here,  as  in  connection  with  other  subjects ;  every  legiti- 
mate stimulus  to  learning  should  be  employed.  The  pupil 
should  bring  to  his  music  class  the  same  sense  of  responsi- 
bility as  well  as  the  same  feeling  of  pleasure  that  he  brings 
to  other  subjects.  Strong  appeal  should  be  made  to  the 
feelings,  of  course.  The  child  should  want  to  sing  and 
should  feel  the  advantages  that  come  from  music. 

Character  of  work.  The  work  with  the  little  children 
should  place  emphasis  on  rote  songs,  so  selected  as  to  give 
drill  on  the  scales  and  easy  intervals.  Often  these  songs 
may  be  accompanied  by  motions  for  the  sake  of  adding 
interest.  In  addition  to  the  rote  songs  there  should  be 
drill  upon  scales  and  intervals  —  simple  little  exercises 
that  get  the  pupil  into  the  easy  habit  of  singing  freely  and 
with  fair  correctness.  Work  should  be  done  through  all 
the  grades  in  perfecting  the  child  in  the  theory  of  music, 
though  stress  should  be  laid  throughout  on  the  singing  of 
songs.  He  should  have  practice  in  both  reading  and  writ- 
ing in  the  different  keys,  advancing  as  rapidly  as  his  powers 
permit.  Exercises  should  be  given  from  board  and  chart 
as  the  children  advance,  and  it  is  well  to  base  the  work 
upon  some  good  system  of  school  music ;  otherwise  it  is 
apt  to  become  very  haphazard  and  devoid  of  results. 

Though  most  of  the  singing  should  be  by  the  school, 
class,  or  division  working  together,  yet  frequent  opportunity 

[229] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

should  be  given  to  all  children  to  sing  by  themselves. 
If  this  work  is  begun  early,  the  child  no  more  fears 
to  sing  than  he  fears  to  draw  or  read  before  others. 
Monotones,  though  discouraging,  are  not  incurable.  The 
first-grade  pupil  who  sings  in  a  monotone  will  not  be  the 
star  singer  of  the  upper  grades,  but  he  may  very  likely  by 
that  time  have  acquired  sufficient  power  so  he  may  keep 
with  the  others.  He  should  be  given  much  individual  prac- 
tice and  some  out-of-school  work.  The  child  who  cannot 
sing  well  usually  sings  lustily.  There  is  every  reason  for 
his  singing  but  no  especial  reason  why  he  should  drown  the 
others  out.  He,  with  all  the  others,  should  be  impressed 
with  the  idea  that  loud  singing  is  not  always  the  best. 
From  the  very  beginning  emphasis  should  be  laid  upon 
sweet,  true,  light,  musical  tones  —  not  loud  singing  but  sweet 
singing.    This  idea  once  started  should  never  be  forgotten. 

Perfection  not  to  be  too  early  expected.  It  is  not  to  be 
supposed  that  children  will  early  learn  all  the  keys  or  that 
they  will  learn  to  read  music  easily,  any  more  than  we  can 
be  sure  they  will  do  long  division  correctly  after  the  first 
presentation,  but  continued  drill,  holding  the  child  respon- 
sible, will  in  time  produce  good  results.  Even  if  these  results 
may  not  be  obtained,  one  can  accomplish  the  great  aim  of 
music  in  our  schools  —  the  giving  of  power  to  sing  songs 
and  to  appreciate  them. 

All  should  sing.  When  the  boys  get  to  the  age  when 
they  stop  singing,  they  should  be  made  to  go  on  again. 
There  is  no  reason  why  they  should  give  up  singing  any 
more  than  reading  or  any  other  school  exercise.  When 
the  voices  get  uncertain,  care  should  be  taken,  but  it 
does  not  usually  hurt  the  big  grammar-school  boys  to 

[230] 


MUSIC 

sing  with  the  rest.  At  this  time  they  may  be  stimulated 
by  the  teacher's  personal  influence,  by  their  desire  to  sing 
when  they  go  to  college,  by  the  reminder  that  music  is 
part  of  the  required  work  of  the  school  course,  and  in 
many  other  ways.  Nevertheless,  it  is  not  well  to  drive 
boys  out  of  school  because  at  the  balky  age  they  feel  that 
they  cannot  do  anything  in  which  they  may  not  distinguish 
themselves.  The  teacher's  object  at  this  time  should  be 
not  so  much  good  singing  as  some  singing.  Classes  may 
be  permitted  at  this  stage  to  sing  songs  rather  than  exer- 
cises, if  songs  are  what  the  children  like,  and  to  sing 
songs  attractive  to  them  rather  than  some  others,  though  the 
line  should  be  drawn  outside  of  mere  street  songs.  There 
are  varieties  of  good  music. 

Treatment  in  rural  schools.  In  a  rural  school  the  chil- 
dren may  be  formed  into  two  divisions,  and  the  daily  music 
work  may  include  the  singing  of  songs  by  the  school,  then 
exercises  with  each  division  on  alternate  days. 

Tactics  of  the  music  recitation.  During  a  singing  lesson 
the  children  should  sit  in  an  upright  position,  not  lounging 
or  stooping,  and  the  lesson  should  go  along  with  the 
zest  and  precision  that  mark  any  other  school  exercise.  In 
music  particularly,  the  pupils  should  be  kept  in  a  happy 
mood.  Stimulated  in  the  right  way,  they  will  sing  with  all 
their  souls  and  hearts  as  well  as  with  all  their  little  voices. 
Music  furnishes  sufficient  change  from  other  lessons  so  that 
it  may  sometimes  be  taken  when  children  are  tired  and  in 
need  of  change.  The  hard  drill  exercises,  however,  should 
be  given  when  the  class  is  fresh  and  ready  for  earnest  work. 
The  teacher  must  needs  keep  herself  in  the  right  mood  if 
she  is  to  make  of  the  lesson  all  that  can  be  made  of  music. 

[231] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Training  in  appreciation.  Music  ranks  with  literature 
and  drawing  as  an  efficient  help  in  keeping  a  school  in  a 
right  attitude  and  increasing  in  the  children  the  upward 
impulse  which  is  so  helpful.  This  subject  is  probably  sur- 
passed by  no  other  save  literature  in  its  power  to  give 
pleasure,  so  it  becomes  the  teacher's  imperative  duty  to 
train  the  children  by  every  possible  means  to  musical  ap- 
preciation. In  these  days  of  opportunity  we  are  greatly 
remiss  if  there  grows  up  a  generation  that  prefers  "  rag 
time  "  to  the  music  of  the  masters.  The  talking  machine 
brings  excellent  music  within  easy  reach,  since  there  is 
hardly  a  neighborhood  in  which  it  is  not  represented.  In  a 
certain  school  a  Victrola  concert,  given  in  school  hours  once 
a  month,  furnishes  the  greatest  delight  to  all  the  assembled 
grades.  Each  concert  brings  smaller  children  escorted  by 
smiling  hosts  or  hostesses.  Parents  also  appear,  because 
the  children  "  like  the  music  "  and  so  urge  attendance. 

No  teacher  should  hesitate  to  ask  anyone  in  the  neigh- 
borhood to  share  with  the  children  her  pianola  or  talking 
machine.  Of  course  the  calls  should  not  be  too  frequent ; 
the  entertainment  should  be  at  the  convenience  of  the 
owner  and  presided  over  by  her.  With  all  courtesy  the 
teacher  should  make  it  plain  that  she  wishes  the  children 
to  hear  at  these  times  only  the  truly  good  selections.  Any 
teacher  who  has  tact  can  convey  this  information  in  a  way 
which  will  give  no  offense.  If  piano  or  organ  be  the  only 
instrument  at  hand,  much  may  be  done  by  means  of  either 
of  these  if  the  player  be  one  who  has  a  fair  execution  and  a 
trained  taste.  If  none  of  these  things  are  to  be  obtained, 
one  may  perhaps  find  some  one  with  a  true,  sweet  voice, 
who  will  occasionally  come  in  and  sing  for  the  children. 

[232] 


MUSIC 

One  never  knows  till  she  asks  how  willing  people  are  to 
do  things  for  the  schools.  We  beg  favors  for  churches 
and  for  societies  of  all  kinds,  and  there  is  no  reason  why 
we  should  not  ask  also  for  the  schools,  which  are  the  most 
important  organizations  that  exist  in  any  community. 

REFERENCES 

Betz.    Gems  of  School  Song.   American  Book  Company. 

BowEN.  Manual  of  Music  for  Teachers  of  Elementary  Schools. 
The  A.  S.  Barnes  'company. 

Gaynor.    Songs  for  Children.    Oliver  Ditson  Company. 

Kastman  and  Kohler.  Swedish  Song  Games.  Ginn  and  Company. 

McLaughlin  and  Gilchrist.    Song  Reader.    Ginn  and  Company. 

McLaughlin,  Hamblin,  and  Brick.  New  School  Music  Primer. 
Ginn  and  Company. 

New  Educational  Music  Course,  First  and  Second  Music  Readers. 
Ginn  and  Company. 

New  Educational  Music  Course,  Teachers'  Edition.  Ginn  and  Com- 
pany. 

Newton.  Introductory  Sight-Singing  Melodies.  Ginn  and  Company. 

Newton.    Music  in  the  Public  Schools.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Palmer.    Twelve  Songs  Illustrated.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Pray.    Motion  Songs  for  Public  Schools.    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

Riley  and  Gaynor.  Lilts  and  Lyrics.  Clayton  F.  Summy  Company. 

Riley  and  Gaynor.  Songs  of  the  Child's  World,  Books  I  and  II. 
The  John  Church  Company. 

Silver  Song  Series.    Silver,  Burdett  &  Company. 

Songs  in  Season.   A.  Flanagan  Company. 

Walker  and  Jenks.  Songs  and  Games  for  Little  Ones.  Oliver 
Ditson  Company. 


[233] 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

DESK  WORK 

Need  of  desk  work.  In  the  rural  school  particularly,  but 
also  in  any  school,  there  is  a  large  amount  of  time  during 
which  the  child  is  not  directly  engaged  in  recitation.  As 
he  grows  older  he  becomes  more  and  more  able  to  get 
knowledge  for  himself  from  books,  but  even  an  older  child 
gets  this  power  slowly,  and  the  little  one  has  it  not  at  all. 
His  time  outside  of  recitation  must  be  wasted,  and  worse, 
unless  some  means  be  found  of  employing  him  in  such  a 
way  as  to  train  him  to  right-working  habits  and  furnish  him 
a  means  of  learning.  In  the  old-time  school  this  problem 
was  unsolved,  but  the  modem  education  has  reached  it 
through  what  is  called  educative  desk  work.  Even  rather 
lately  this  work  was  regarded  as  useless  or,  at  its  best,  as 
only  a  means  of  keeping  the  children  happy  and  out  of 
mischief;  but  one  who  really  studies  the  subject  makes  the 
desk  work  as  truly  a  way  of  instruction  as  is  furnished  by 
books  —  often  a  much  better  means  than  that  furnished, 
even  to  older  children,  by  books  alone. 

A  child  needs  to  be  developed  along  all  lines.  He  needs 
to  learn  the  habit  of  concentrated  attention,  of  digging  till 
he  has  accomplished  something,  the  habit  of  success.  He 
needs  skill  with  his  fingers  and  power  to  direct  his  fingers. 
He  needs  training  in  nice  discrimination,  noticing  resem- 
blances and  differences,  and  he  needs  direct  training  towards 

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DESK  WORK 

skill  in  reading,  number,  drawing,  language,  music,  and 
all  the  school  subjects.  Desk  work,  properly  planned,  will 
give  him  all  of  these.  Work  may  be  selected  that  will 
both  directly  and  indirectly  teach  these  subjects  last  men- 
tioned. For  example,  a  child  may  have  for  work  the  build- 
ing of  sentences  from  words,  that  is,  direct  instruction  in 
the  reading  line  ;  or  he  may  have  work  which  trains  him  to 
a  knowledge  of  form — indirect  instruction  toward  reading 
power,  since  all  power  to  read  depends  upon  ability  to  dis- 
criminate minute  differences  in  form  of  letters  and  words. 

Teacher  should  see  purpose  of  work.  The  teacher  should 
regard  her  desk  work  as  work  and  important  work,  not  as 
something  to  show  off  with.  Unless  she  so  considers  it, 
she  should  not  use  it.  It  should  be  educative,  given  with 
a  direct  purpose.  When  it  has  served  this  purpose  it 
should  be  discarded.  A  first-grade  child  may  get  power 
by  matching  cut-up  pictures,  but  when  he  can  put  them 
together  fairly  well  they  have  served  their  purpose  for  in- 
struction ;  they  simply  amuse,  so  usually  there  would  be 
little  value  in  assigning  cut-up  pictures  to  a  third  grade. 
The  same  holds  true  of  other  lines  of  work.  Discarding 
desk  work  as  outgrown  does  not  always  mean  putting 
it  aside.  It  may  mean  using  it  in  another  way.  A  child 
may  match  tablets  by  color,  shape,  or  size,  in  the  first  few 
weeks  of  school,  and  he  may  get  good  training  in  the 
third  grade  by  arranging  the  same  tablets  suitably  for  a 
border  or  surface. 

Variety  necessary  for  interest.  Interest  needs  to  be 
kept  up  constantly,  so  drill  for  the  same  purpose  should 
be  given  in  different  ways.  A  class  needing  drill  on  num- 
ber combinations  to  twenty  might  find  the  answer  tablets 

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EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 


to  tablets  with  the  number  combinations  written  vertically, 
,  or  horizontally  |6  -4|  [2] ;  or  they  might  build 


like  this 


the  combinations,  as  [6][+][3][^[9] ;  or  they  might  find  all 
the  combinations  whose  answer  is  a  certain  number.  These 
tablets  might  be  made  with  the  hectograph  or  with  black 
calendar  figures  or  with  colored  calendar  figures  or  with 
words.  By  means  of  such  variety,  interest  is  heightened 
and  the  varying  tastes  of  the  children  are  all  met.  The 
boy  who  would  never  without  a  struggle  do  his  number 
work,  which  usually  consisted  of  copying  combinations 
and  writing  the  answer,  thought  the  work  with  vertically 
arranged  combinations  to  be  matched  to  the  answer  the 
very  best  of  all  the  desk  work.  One  of  the  troubles  in 
using  desk  work  with  children  just  entering  school  arises 
from  the  inability  to  teach  as  many  kinds  of  work  as  are 
needed  to  keep  the  children  employed  without  doing  the 
same  over  till  they  are  weary  of  it,  a  matter  needing  careful 
planning  on  the  teacher's  part. 

Need  of  explanation.  If  desk  work  is  to  accomplish  its 
mission,  it  must  be  understood  by  the  children,  and  time 
for  explanation  may  well  be  taken  from  class-work  time. 
It  is  a  profitable  investment,  as  the  child  is  introduced 
through  it  to  a  means  of  drill  that  he  may  work  at  for 
many  hours  independently. 

How  to  be  regarded  by  the  child.  Children  often  fail 
to  do  the  given  work.  Failure  arises  from  not  understand- 
ing how  to  do  it  or  sometimes  through  a  feeling  that  it 
does  not  amount  to  much.  The  child  should  be  made  to 
see  its  importance,  to  regard  it  as  his  work  and  its  accom- 
plishment as  worth  while.   This  attitude  is  helped  by  the 

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DESK  WORK 

teacher's  showing  her  sense  of  its  value,  through  seeing 
that  it  is  done  and  approving  its  satisfactory  completion. 
If  she  does  not  look  at  it,  there  is  little  incentive  to  the 
pupil  to  work.  A  cursory  glance  and  a  word  or  two  produce 
satisfactor)^  results. 

The  child  should  be  expected  to  keep  at  his  work  till  it 
is  finished,  and  the  signal  for  completed  work  should  be 
folded  hands.  Such  do  no  mischief.  The  teacher  should 
remember  that  little  children  accomplish  tasks  very  rapidly 
and  that  half  the  troubles  in  school  come  from  the  fact 
that  not  enough  work  is  exacted  to  keep  the  children  as 
busy  as  they  can  be,  every  minute.  Children  will  do  vary- 
ing amounts  of  this,  as  of  other  work.  It  is  well  to  give 
out  a  second  kind  to  be  done  when  the  first  is  finished, 
though  this  is  not  always  necessary. 

Decision  as  to  kind.  The  kind  to  be  done  should  be 
decided  by  the  teacher,  who  should  try  to  apportion  it  so 
that  drill  in  the  different  subjects  will  be  furnished — work 
leading  to  arithmetic  for  one  period,  reading  for  another ; 
spelling,  drawing,  and  other  subjects,  coming  along  in  turn. 
When  special  drill  is  needed  in  a  subject  this  kind  of  work 
should  be  increased.  If  choice  is  left  with  the  pupil,  he 
emphasizes  the  kind  he  likes  best  and  often  neglects  the 
kind  he  needs.  Sometimes,  however,  a  choice  may  be 
given,  particularly  as  a  reward. 

Work  should  be  attractive  and  hygienic.  All  desk 
work  should  have  elements  of  beauty  and  should  be  so 
planned  that  it  cannot  harm  the  pupil  physically.  Beauty, 
in  a  child's  eyes,  usually  means  variety  and  brightness. 
Bright  little  pictures  to  be  matched  to  words,  and  colored 
pegs,  sticks,  and  tablets  rather  than  plain  ones,  are,  then, 
the  better  thing.  No  work  should  be  given  that  can  strain 

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EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

eyes  or  nerves  because  of  dimness  or  size.  The  hecto- 
graphed  tablets  should  be  brightly  printed;  the  letters, 
figures,  and  slips  upon  which  the  work  is  written  should 
be  large.  Stringing  tiny  beads,  sewing  with  fine  mate- 
rials or  with  tiny  perforations,  underlining  known  words  in 
the  print  of  ordinary  newspapers,  and  all  such  things  are 
criminal  work  to  give. 

Use  with  older  grades.  Desk  work  is  intended  mainly 
for  little  children.  The  first,  second,  and  third  grades  use 
it  most  profitably.  Sometimes  older  children  do  not  want 
to  do  it,  because  it  seems  like  baby  work.  Sometimes  they 
are  eager  to  secure  the  fun  of  it.  There  are  some  kinds 
of  work  well  adapted  to  larger  pupils,  as  some  of  the 
music  material,  some  of  the  arithmetic,  and  much  of  the 
language  work.  Selecting  from  a  box  of  miscellaneous 
words  those  that  are  names  of  objects,  those  that  describe 
objects,  or  those  that  express  action  is  excellent  drill. 
Finding  the  words  that  make  the  subjects  and  those  that 
make  the  predicates  of  given  sentences,  arranging  com- 
parison of  adjectives,  principal  parts  of  verbs,  and  conju- 
gation of  verbs  furnish  work  which  would  do  no  harm  in 
the  highest  grades. 

Sources  of  material.  The  desk  work  may  largely  be 
made  with  hectograph,  development  paper  —  oak  tag  — 
stub  pen,  colored  paper,  calendars,  little  pictures  from  maga- 
zines or  other  advertisements.  Older  children  may  make  it 
for  the  younger  as  a  part  of  their  industrial  work.  Desk 
work  may  be  bought  from  the  various  firms  that  deal  in 
such  materials,  —  like  the  J.  L.  Hammett  Company,  the 
Milton  Bradley  Company,  and  D.  H.  Knowlton  &  Co., — 
but  usually  the  necessary  work  can  be  made. 

[238] 


DESK  WORK 

Care  of  material.  The  material  may  be  kept  in  enve- 
lopes, in  little  boxes,  or  —  some  kinds  —  in  one  large  box. 
The  little-box  way  is  best,  and  discarded  thread  or  silk 
boxes  may  be  obtained  at  any  store.  The  dealers  will  save 
them  for  a  teacher  who  explains  the  purpose  for  which 
they  are  to  be  used.  A  set  of  small  boxes  of  one  kind  of 
work  may  be  kept  in  one  large  box  for  convenience  in  dis- 
tribution. Each  little  box  should  be  labeled  and  numbered. 
If  the  tablets  of  each  box  are  also  numbered  to  correspond 
with  the  box,  the  sorting  is  made  easy,  as  one  can  see  at  a 
glance  where  each  piece  belongs.  Several  times  a  year  in 
a  small  school,  as  often  as  possible  in  a  larger  one,  the 
desk  work  should  be  gone  over  and  put  thoroughly  in  order. 
Older  pupils  may  do  much  of  this,  certain  pupils  having 
charge  of  different  kinds  of  work.  Breaking,  marking, 
stealing  the  work,  should  all  be  looked  out  for.  Many  a 
moral  lesson  may  be  given  through  this  means. 

Distribution  of  work.  The  pupils  should  usually  dis- 
tribute and  collect  the  work.  It  saves  the  teacher's  time 
and  furnishes  training  for  the  children.  They  will  do  it 
awkwardly  at  first,  but  that  is  a  greater  reason  for  their 
doing  it.  The  little  people  to  whom  the  boxes  are  given 
should  be  trained  to  let  them  alone  till  told  to  open  them. 
The  teacher  may  explain  how  the  material  is  to  be  used  and 
then  give  the  signal  for  opening  the  boxes.  To  wait  for  this 
signal  is  a  training  to  self-restraint  that  in  itself  is  of  value. 

No  teacher  who  has  carefully  worked  out  the  subject, 
planning  work  to  meet  the  needs  of  a  class  and  observing 
the  results  gained  by  use  of  the  various  kinds,  will  there- 
after need  to  be  urged  to  make  educative  desk  work  fill  a 
large  place  in  her  primary  teaching. 

[  239  ] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

A  FEW  KINDS  THAT  ARE  PARTICULARLY  USEFUL 

For  Reading 

Rhymes  and  words.  The  child  to  build  the  rhymes  or  put  the 
word  tablets  upon  corresponding  words  of  rh)mie.  These  may  be 
both  written  and  printed,  and  type  sentences  in  prose  may  be 
substituted  for  rhymes. 

Tablets,  containing  pictures  —  colored,  uncolored,  or  hectographed 
—  together  with  written  or  printed  words.  These  are  to  be  matched 
to  tablets  containing  written  or  printed  words. 

Tablets  containing  pictures  only.  These  are  to  be  matched  to 
tablets  with  words.    A  step  in  advance  of  the  preceding  work. 

Written  and  printed  words  which  are  to  be  matched  to  each  other. 

Tablets  containing  common  words.  These  are  to  be  used  in 
building  sentences. 

All  of  these  may  be  used  during  the  sight  reading.  When  read- 
ing by  the  phonetic  method  is  reached,  the  child  may  continue  all  of 
above  work  and  may  have  the  following  in  addition : 

Letters,  to  build  words. 

Initials,  to  match  to  endings  to  build  words. 

Words  and  letters,  to  match  the  letter  to  the  word  beginning  with  it 

Words  containing  a  common  element,  to  match  to  cards  having 
the  common  element  only. 

For  Language  and  Grammar 

Much  of  the  reading  material. 

Pictures  with  words  below,  to  write  story  containing  words. 

Pictures  without  words,  to  serve  as  a  basis  for  a  story. 

Tablets  with  parts  of  speech,  to  put  in  groups  those  which  are 
usually  verbs  or  nouns  or  adjectives  or  other  parts  of  speech. 

Singulars  and  plurals. 

Adjectives  —  positive,  comparative,  superlative. 

Verbs  —  principal  parts. 
.    Pronouns  —  declensions. 

Words,  to  build  sentences  for  drill  on  correct  forms,  like  "  It  is  I," 
"  Whom  did  you  see  ?  " 

Abbreviations,  to  match  to  words. 

[  240  ] 


DESK  WORK 

For  Arithmetic 

Tablets  with  number  combinations  written  vertically,  to  match  to 
answer. 

Tablets  with  number  combinations  written  horizontally,  to  match 
to  answer. 

Tablets  containing  single  figure  or  sign,  to  build  combinations  and 
answers. 

Tablets  with  numbers  and  signs,  to  build  multiplication  tables. 

Matching  dominoes. 

Finding  equivalents  in  dominoes. 

Cards  with  varying  number  of  holes  punched,  to  match  those 
having  the  same  number. 

Tablets  with  numbers,  to  arrange  in  order  as  in  counting. 

Tablets,  to  build  tables  of  denominate  numbers. 

Equivalents  in  denominate  numbers  to  match ;  for  example, 
I  qt.  =  2  pts. 

Measures  or  surfaces,  to  find  equivalents  in  measures  or  surfaces ; 
for  example,  an  8-inch  length  to  be  matched  to  a  6  and  a  2,  to  a  7 
and  a  I,  to  four  2's. 

The  desk  work  in  number  may  be  varied  by  using  written  and 
printed  words  or  figures,  by  making  with  hectograph,  or  by  employing 
black  or  colored  calendar  figures. 

Many  modifications  of  suggested  work  may  be  made. 

For  desk  work  also,  the  pupils  may  do  many  things  such  as  are 
mentioned  under  the  class  drills  in  number,  like  making  the  multipli- 
cation tables  in  squares  or  constructing  magic  squares.  Such  work 
is  to  be  found  illustrated  in  most  books  on  elementary  arithmetic. 

For  Geography 

Tablets  with  counties  of  own  state,  to  arrange  alphabetically. 
Tablets  with  cities  of  own  state,  to  arrange  alphabetically. 
Miscellaneous  tablets,  to  pick  out  the  ones  which  name  rivers, 
seas,  bays,  cities,  capes,  or  islands. 

Tablets,  to  match  states,  capitals,  and  largest  cities. 
Names  of  states,  to  match  to  products. 
Cut-out  maps,  to  put  states  or  countries  in  proper  places. 
Outline  maps,  to  fill  in  in  various  ways. 

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EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

For  Drawing 
Sticks,  to  match  for  color. 
Tablets,  to  match  for  color. 
Tablets,  to  match  for  form. 
Sticks  and  tablets,  to  make  designs. 
Color  tablets,  to  be  matched  to  name  tablets. 
Building  the  spectrum. 
Placing  adjacent  colors  of  spectrum. 
Coloring  pictures. 
Free  work  with  clay  or  plasticine. 
Work  for  illustration  with  clay  or  plasticine. 
Paper  folding  and  cutting. 

Paper  cutting  or  tearing,  to  represent  stories,  games,  occupations. 
Cutting  figures  from  wall  paper. 
Cutting  figures  from  advertising  catalogues. 

For  Miscellaneous  Drill 

Pictures  of  weather  signals,  to  be  matched  to  proper  explanatory 
words. 

Names  of  months,  to  build  calendars. 

Names  of  days,  to  build  weeks. 

Names  of  months,  to  match  to  names  of  seasons. 

Letters,  to  build  words  for  spelling  drill. 

Word  tablets,  to  build  scales  or  intervals  as  indicated  on  staff. 

Tablets  with  signatures,  to  match  to  music. 

Tablets  with  names  of  keys,  to  match  to  staff  exercises. 

Cut-up  pictures,  to  put  together. 

Cards  punched  with  large  holes  in  outiines  of  objects,  to  be  sewed 
with  coarse  lacings. 

Stringing  kindergarten  beads. 

Stringing  berries,  seeds,  straws,  and  other  natural  objects, 

REFERENCES 

Many  of  the  books  named  under  Industrial  Work  furnish  sugges- 
tions that  may  help  here. 
Arnold.    Plans  for  Busy  Work.    Silver,  Burdett  &  Company. 

[242] 


DESK  WORK 

Arnold.    Wa5rmarks  for  Teachers.    Silver,  Burdett  &  Company. 

Arnold.   With  Pencil  and  Pen.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Cobb.    Busy  Builders'  Book.    Ginn  and  Company. 

George.    Teachers'  Plan  Books.   A.  Flanagan  Company. 

Kindergarten  supplies  of  various  sorts,  including  much  material  men- 
tioned here,  may  be  obtained  from  the  J.  L.  Hammett  Company, 
Boston ;  the  Milton  Bradley  Company,  Boston  ;  Edward  E.  Babb 
and  Company,  Boston  ;  the  Dennison  Manufacturing  Co.,  Boston  ; 
D.  H.  Knowlton  &  Co.,  Farmington,  Maine;  and  from  many  like 
sources.   (See  the  lists  given  in  the  chapter  on  apparatus.) 


[243] 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

INDUSTRIAL  WORK 

Justification  of  such  work.  Industrial  work  or  handwork 
has  been  introduced  into  school  in  the  belief  that  the  child 
who  is  skillful  with  his  hands,  while  slow  in  purely  mental 
work,  needs  a  chance,  and  that  the  child  who  is  unskillful 
with  his  hands  needs  to  acquire  a  modicum  of  power  in 
that  direction.  Manual  work  trains  not  only  the  hands 
which  execute  but  the  brain  which  directs.  It  has  every 
excuse  for  being. 

Actual  observation  proves  that  much  work  of  this  sort 
may  be  done  with  but  little  loss  in  such  work  as  has  for 
years  formed  the  school  courses.  In  one  school  where 
much  industrial  work  has  been  done  for  several  years  little 
apparent  loss  in  regular  progress  has  appeared.  The  chil- 
dren to  all  appearance  cover  the  ground  they  have  always 
covered.  There  may  be  a  leak  somewhere,  but  it  does  not 
show.  The  explanation  seems  to  be  that  the  children  work 
so  much  more  busily  in  anticipation  of  extra  time  for 
manual  industry  that  much  of  the  former  waste  of  time 
is  eliminated.  Little  attention  is  given  to  whispering, 
giggling,  note  writing,  or  other  forms  of  idleness  or  mis- 
chief. The  regular  lessons  are  put  through  with  all  speed, 
and  the  entire  change  of  occupation  furnished  by  the 
handwork  takes  away  greatly  the  element  of  fatigue.  Any 
teacher  who  doubts  this  may  recall  the  effect  upon  herself 

[244] 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK 

when  nervously  tired  if  she  busies  herself  with  some  light 
piece  of  plain  sewing  or  fancywork.  The  pleasure  fur- 
nished by  the  work,  together  with  satisfaction  in  the  results, 
has  its  great  effect. 

Paper  and  cardboard  work.  One  of  the  things  easiest 
to  be  done,  and  for  which  material  may  be  secured  with 
least  trouble,  is  paper  and  cardboard  construction.  Rich's 
book  called  "  Cardboard  Construction  "  will  suggest  to  the 
teacher  much  work  in  construction  of  various  boxes,  trays, 
wall  pockets,  baskets,  and  things  of  that  sort.  Many  of 
these  are  easy  to  make  and  may  be  attempted  by  first- 
grade  children,  while  some  of  the  things  may  be  made 
by  pupils  of  fifth  or  sixth  grade  with  profit.  The  older 
children  may  also  do  cardboard  work,  and  things  to  be 
constructed  are  easily  thought  of,  quite  elaborate  boxes, 
blotting  pads,  portfolios,  and  booklets  resulting.  The  port- 
folios, the  covers  to  boxes  and  booklets,  and  the  corners 
of  the  pads  may  be  decorated  with  colored  pencils  or  with 
water  colors.  Picture  cutting  and  mounting  may  be  done, 
and  valentines,  Christmas  cards,  Thanksgiving  menus, 
May  baskets,  may  come  at  the  proper  seasons.  Toy  furni- 
ture may  be  made  by  all  the  grades,  and  the  furnishing  of 
dolls'  houses  brings  an  absorbing  pleasure.  For  this  work 
with  the  little  children,  dictation  may  be  used  or  the  pat- 
terns may  be  drawn  for  them  to  cut  out.  Later  they  may 
mark  around  a  pattern ;  later  still  copy  one  from  measure- 
ments ;  and  finally,  when  they  are  old  enough,  invent  their 
own  patterns. 

Material  for  the  work  is  suggested  in  Miss  Rich's  book, 
but  for  all  practical  purposes  the  teacher  may  use  stiff 
drawing  paper  or  the  so-called  studio  papers  which  may 

[  245  ] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

be  procured  from  any  school-supply  house.  Printing  estab- 
lishments will  sometimes  furnish  them  more  cheaply. 
Many  of  the  articles  may  be  constructed  from  common 
cartridge  paper,  such  as  is  used  for  covering  walls.  It 
is  cheaper  and  works  very  well  if  it  is  unrolled  and 
pressed  flat. 

Sewing.  Sewing  is  easily  introduced  into  any  school 
and  may  vary  from  very  simple  plain  sewing  to  embroidery 
and  elaborate  fancywork.  Plain  sewing  is  usually  best. 
Patton's  "  Home  and  School  Sewing "  and  Hapgood's 
"  School  Needlework  "  are  very  helpful  books,  and  either 
will  insure  the  teacher's  going  about  things  in  the  right 
way.  Basting,  running,  gathering,  hemming,  overcasting, 
backstitching,  are  necessary  to  be  taught  and  may  be  done 
through  the  making  of  articles  calling  for  the  different 
stitches.  The  youngest  children  —  sewing  should  not  start 
before  the  third  year  —  may  practice  stitches  on  canvas  or 
may  run  along  lines  drawn  with  a  pencil  on  soft  white 
cloth,  to  learn  how,  but  it  is  better  to  make  things  as  soon 
as  possible.  Towels  may  be  hemmed  in  the  common  way  or 
by  the  French  hemstitch,  or  napkin  stitch.  Small  straight 
aprons  may  be  made,  and  dolls'  clothes  attempted.  Older 
children  may  do  more  elaborate  work, — hemstitching  and 
embroidery  stitches, — but  plain  sewing  is  what  is  really  best 
fitted  for  most  school  work.  It  is  not  a  good  plan  usually 
to  let  the  girls  take  their  sewing  home,  for  mothers  are 
too  prone  to  pick  out  the  stitches  as  not  satisfactory  or  at 
any  rate  to  finish  the  garment.  During  the  work  at  school 
the  children  should  be  taught  right  ways  of  sewing  and  not 
allowed  to  work  awkwardly,  even  if  they  seem  to  produce 
better  results  in  that  way. 

[  246  ] 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK 

It  is  an  excellent  idea  for  the  older  girls  to  dress  a 
school  doll.  This  has  proved  a  fascinating  employment, 
and  many  fine  stitches  have  been  set  in  its  accomplish- 
ment. The  seams  are  short,  and  many  different  kinds  of 
sewing  are  needed.  Much  information  may  be  picked  up 
in  regard  to  fitting.  The  teacher  may  cut  patterns,  or  they 
may  be  bought.  The  Jenny  Wren  patterns  issued  by  t^^e 
Delineator  are  helpful,  as  are  also  those  recommended  by 
the  Goodwin  "'  Course  in  Sewing."  The  doll  with  her  ward- 
robe may  usually  be  disposed  of  at  some  fair,  and  enough 
realized  to  cover  the  expense.  The  doll  should  not  be  too 
small,  which  renders  the  handling  of  the  garments  difficult. 

The  older  girls  may  also  be  taught  the  simple  crochet 
stitches  and  make  what  they  please.  The  wash  cloth  is 
an  easy  article,  and  it  may  be  made  by  whatever  stitch  one 
wishes  to  teach.    Plain  knitting  may  be  taught  also. 

Boys  should  not  be  given  the  general  sewing,  but  it 
would  be  well  to  teach  them  to  darn  a  stocking,  put  on 
a  patch,  and  sew  on  various  kinds  of  buttons,  in  case  of 
future  emergencies;  so  when  such  work  is  in  progress 
all  may  take  part. 

Sewing  may  include,  besides  that  just  discussed,  work 
like  sewing  on  burlap  or  similar  material  for  the  construc- 
tion of  needlebooks,  napkin  rings,  and  all  such  articles. 
The  children  may  also  sew  braids  made  from  raffia  into 
baskets,  frames,  hats,  mats,  and  other  small  articles.  In 
connection  with  the  doll-dressing,  hats  may  be  made  in 
this  way  or  from  straw  braid  if  that  is  available.  Mats  may 
be  sewed  from  the  results  of  the  spool  knitting,  which  fur- 
nishes good  work  for  the  younger  children.  The  materials 
being  so  simple,   consisting  of   a  spool  with  four  pins 

[  247  ] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

driven  into  it  and  odd  bits  of  yam  that  may  be  found  in 
any  darning  basket,  nearly  all  children  are  easily  equipped. 
Reins  are  the  most  favored  product,  but  mats  are  also 
popular. 

Weaving.  Weaving  is  a  pleasing  form  of  industrial 
work.  The  little  children  may  learn  it  by  means  of  the 
common  kindergarten  mats  or  similar  ones  constructed  of 
brown  paper.  Preparing  these  last  might  form  handwork 
for  some  of  the  older  pupils.  Mats  for  learning  may  be 
made  also  from  enamel  cloth.  The  paper  mats  with  bright 
colors  give  much  pleasure  to  the  children  and  may  be 
made  into  cornucopias.  May  baskets,  and  other  articles,  with 
a  little  adjustment.  The  strips  should  always  be  wide,  and 
children  should  not  be  allowed  to  do  such  fine  weaving  as 
to  try  the  eyes. 

Much  weaving  may  be  done  on  looms  constructed  of 
cardboard,  having  notched  edges  or  holes  punched  near 
the  edges  around  or  through  which  the  warp  may  be 
strung.  Such  looms  may  be  used  for  making  wash  cloths 
out  of  cheesecloth  cut  in  bias  strips  about  half  an  inch  wide 
and  frayed  or  fringed  at  the  edges.  On  these  looms  dolls' 
hammocks  may  be  made  also  and  rugs  for  dolls'  houses. 
The  warp  for  these  may  be  common  white  twine.  This  is 
more  cheaply  obtained  at  the  dry-goods  stores,  where  it  is 
used  for  doing  up  bundles.  Jute  may  be  purchased  at  stores 
where  twines  of  different  sorts  are  bought,  more  cheaply 
than  at  the  school-supply  houses.  Holders  may  be  made  of 
jute  warp  and  woof,  though  a  wooden  loom  is  better  for 
these.  Wooden  looms  may  be  made  easily  by  nailing  to- 
gether four  smooth  strips  of  wood  and  then  driving  tiny 
nails  along  two  opposite  ends,  a  quarter  of  an  inch  apart. 

[  248  ] 


i 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK 

A  wire  fastened  along  each  side  prevents  the  mat  being 
pulled  in  too  much.  In  the  same  way  knitting  needles 
may  be  run  through  the  cardboard  looms  to  serve  the 
same  purpose.  The  Bartlett  loom  is  a  good  cardboard 
loom  for  weaving  little  articles  of  worsted,  like  caps,  capes, 
hoods,  and  skirts.  This  loom  may  be  obtained  from  the 
manufacturer,  or  its  equivalent  may  be  easily  made.  From 
the  J.  L.  Hammett  Company  one  may  get  for  a  dollar 
samples  of  all  these  Bartlett  looms,  partly  strung  so  as  to 
show  the  way  of  working,  together  with  a  book  telling  how 
to  make  the  various  articles.  The  cost  of  each  thing 
amounts  to  two  or  three  cents. 

Raffia.  Raffia  may  be  employed  for  many  things  and  is 
a  favorite  material.  It  may  be  bought  very  cheaply  in  the 
natural  colors,  and  one  may  dye  it  for  one's  self;  or  it  may 
be  purchased  already  colored.  The  natural  costs  about 
twenty  cents  a  pound  and  the  colored  fifty,  if  purchased 
from  the  regular  school-supply  houses,  but  it  may  be 
bought  in  natural  colors  at  better  terms  at  the  seed  stores. 
The  cheapest  source  that  I  know  is  the  McHutchison 
Company,  New  York,  which  sells  it  at  a  cost  not  much 
more  than  half  as  great  as  that  usually  charged,  if  several 
pounds  are  purchased.  Mats  and  sofa-pillow  covers  woven 
of  raffia  are  very  pleasing,  and  the  covers  are  particularly 
useful  for  piazzas.  Raffia  spread  smoothly  and  wound  over 
a  pasteboard  foundation  may  serve  for  constructing  pic- 
ture frames,  boxes,  needlebook  covers,  and  other  attractive 
objects. 

Knotting.  Raffia  may  be  used  for  knotting.  Most  books 
on  basket  work  give  directions  for  simple  knots  with  which 
may  be  made  bags,  dolls'  hammocks,  and  other  simple 

[249] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

articles.  Children  who  live  where  such  things  are  useful 
like  to  make  dip-nets,  for  which  macramd  cord  is  the  best 
material. 

Basketry.  Perhaps  the  most  interesting  manual  work, 
and  that  furnishing  most  variety,  is  basketry ;  so  many 
different  materials  may  be  used  in  so  many  different  ways. 
Baskets  and  mats  may  be  woven  from  reeds.  This  is  too 
hard  for  the  fingers  of  younger  children,  but  the  results 
are  so  quickly  obtained  that  the  older  ones  are  eager  for 
the  work.  Reeds  of  different  sizes — from  one,  the  finest, 
to  eight  and  nine  —  may  be  bought.  Sizes  two  and  three 
are  the  most  useful.  Reeds  may  be  bought  so  cheaply 
from  F.  B.  Alexander,  West  Newton,  Massachusetts,  that 
a  good-sized  basket  costs  only  a  few  cents.  There  are 
many  good  books  on  basketry,  such  as  White's  "  How  to 
Make  Baskets  "  and  "  More  Baskets  and  How  to  Make 
Them." 

If  it  is  wished,  the  reeds  may  be  dyed  with  Easy  Dye 
before  the  weaving,  or  the  completed  baskets  may  be 
dipped.  Jap-a-lac  applied  with  a  brush  gives  a  pretty  finish, 
as  do  the  wood  stains.  The  children  may  produce  pleasing 
effects  by  use  of  the  juices  from  flower  petals  and  other 
natural  materials,  and  time  is  of  so  little  value  to  young 
children  that  they  are  willing  to  experiment.  Reeds  take 
all  dyes  easily,  but  raffia  needs  to  soak  overnight  in  clear 
warm  water,  or  for  an  hour  or  so  in  strong  soda  water, 
before  dyeing. 

Many  other  materials  may  be  used  for  weaving  mats  and 
baskets,  like  rushes,  dried  grasses  and  roots,  com  husks, 
and  any  natural  material  that  has  length  and  is  tough 
when  dry.    Good  wastebaskets  and  workbaskets  may  be 

[250] 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK 

made  with  reeds  starting  from  a  wooden  base,  holes  being 
bored  to  hold  the  reeds,  which  are  fastened  with  glue. 
Around  these  uprights  any  material  may  be  woven. 

Sewed  baskets  take  longer  than  woven  ones  but  are  very 
satisfactory.  Reeds,  raffia,  husks,  or  grasses  are  used  for 
the  foundation,  and  the  sewing  is  done  with  raffia  or  other 
similar  material.  These  baskets,  once  started  by  aid  of  the 
teacher,  usually  present  no  difficulties.  In  starting  when 
reeds  form  the  foundation,  the  end  must  be  sharpened  to 
a  long  point  and  soaked  till  very  pliable.  Natural  raffia  is 
used  most  frequently  for  the  sewing,  the  colored  furnish- 
ing ornamentation  in  stripes  or  figures.  The  rope  founda- 
tion is  very  satisfactory  for  a  sewed  basket  for  younger 
children.  Rope  may  be  bought  by  the  pound  at  the  produce 
stores.    It  is  soft  and  pliable  and  easily  worked. 

A  rather  quicker  method  than  sewing  is  presented  in 
the  wound  basket,  in  which  results  are  obtained  by  wind- 
ing reeds  around  reed  spokes  by  means  of  raffia.  There 
is  almost  no  limit  to  the  work  that  may  be  done  in  basket 
making,  and  it  is  interesting  to  watch  children  grow  in 
skill,  some  children  of  grammar-school  age  producing  very 
beautiful  results.  Linings  of  silk  or  silkaline  may  be 
added,  and  these  contribute  much  to  the  attractiveness 
of  the  work. 

Chair  caning.  Chair  caning  is  good  work  and  easily 
done  by  grammar-school  children.  This  side  of  the  indus- 
trial work  seems  so  practical  that  parents  are  immediately 
interested.  Chair  cane  may  be  obtained  from  Alexander's, 
and  directions  for  caning  are  given  in  White's  book  on 
basketry.  The  old  seat,  cut  out,  will  give  assistance  in 
directing.  The  cane  is  best  used  slightly  damp.   It  is  held 

[251] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

in  place  as  woven,  by  small  wooden  pegs  which  are  thrust 
into  the  holes  and  moved  along  as  needed.  The  caning 
goes  from  back  to  front,  then  from  side  to  side,  then  from 
back  to  front  again  in  the  same  holes,  then  from  side  to 
side  to  make  a  mesh,  then  from  corner  to  corner  and  from 
opposite  corner  to  corner,  finally  being  finished  by  a  bind- 
ing cane,  slightly  wider.  Caning  is  particularly  good  work 
for  boys. 

Whittling.  Whittling  may  be  done  by  both  boys  and 
girls  but  is  preferred  by  the  boys.  Larsson's  book  "  Ele- 
mentary Sloyd  and  Whittling"  gives  good  suggestions. 
A  kitchen  paring  knife  is  better  than  a  boy's  pocketknife, 
which  is  apt  to  close  unexpectedly.  The  pupil  should  be 
taught  to  whittle  from  him  instead  of  towards  the  body. 
Soft  wood,  like  pine  from  the  wood  pile  or  an  old  box  and 
cedar  from  cigar  boxes,  furnishes  good  material.  Thread 
winders,  buttons  for  cupboard  doors,  key  tags,  small  picture 
frames,  —  in  shape,  oblong,  round,  or  elliptical,  —  pen- 
holders, and  many  similar  things  may  be  made. 

Stenciling.  Stenciling  is  good  work  and  is  enjoyed  by 
boys  and  girls.  Sofa-pillow  covers,  bags,  and  draperies  may 
be  constructed.  Denim,  linen,  scrim,  or  any  smooth  mate- 
rial may  be  used.  The  design  is  marked  on  waxed  or 
shellacked  paper  and  cut  out  carefully.  It  may  also  be  made 
on  blotting  paper,  which  is  good,  as  it  easily  absorbs  what 
would  spread  beyond  the  desired  surface.  The  paper  is 
then  adjusted  on  the  material,  and  the  color  applied  to  the 
holes  of  the  pattern  with  a  brush.  Easy  Dye,  mixed  ac- 
cording to  the  directions  on  the  tube,  may  be  used,  as  may 
common  water-color  and  oil  paints.  The  pupil  should  use 
what  he  can  most  easily  secure. 

[252] 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK 

Modeling.  Clay  modeling,  while  remarkably  suited  for 
work  with  little  children,  may  be  employed  profitably  by 
the  older,  who  may  make  whatever  they  feel  themselves 
capable  of.  An  embryo  sculptor  would  probably  produce 
a  pretty  good  statuette.  Many  animal  forms  may  be  made. 
Most  of  the  children  will  stop  with  tiles  and  vases.  An 
excellent  way  to  make  vases  is  by  shaping  the  clay  into 
a  rope  and  then  building  it  around  and  upon  itself,  mak- 
ing it  strong  and  smooth  by  equal  pressure  of  the  fingers 
from  within  and  without.  Children  should  be  trained  to 
make  the  vases  beautiful  in  shape.  They  may  be  dried  and 
then  painted  if  care  is  taken  not  to  have  the  colors  too  wet. 
Painting  directly  from  the  pan  of  water  color  is  best. 

Leather,  iron,  brass,  and  other  kinds  of  work.  If  mate- 
rial can  be  obtained,  work  may  be  done  in  bent  iron,  tooled 
leather,  or  perforated  brass.  Sheets  of  brass,  a  block  of 
soft  wood,  an  awl,  and  a  design  stamped  with  carbon  paper 
are  all  that  are  needed  for  the  latter.  Stamped  patterns 
may  be  bought,  but  they  are  expensive.  Sheets  of  brass 
can  be  bought  cheaply  by  the  pound  at  hardware  stores. 
Any  other  manual  work  for  which  the  child  has  the  means 
may  be  done.  If  he  has  a  jig  saw  or  any  tools  at  home, 
he  should  be  encouraged  to  use  them.  The  work  should 
spring  out  of  what  is  at  hand.  Many  suggestions  have 
been  made,  in  the  hope  that  some  may  fit. 

The  dolls*  house.  It  may  be  well  to  say  an  extra  word 
about  the  dolls'  house.  A  pasteboard  box  may  represent  a 
single  room,  the  front  of  which  is  open.  A  wooden  box  will 
serve  the  same  purpose.  An  elaborate  house  may  be  made 
by  means  of  four  sweet-corn  boxes.  A  roof  put  on  gives 
the  attic,  and  one  has  kitchen  and  dining  room  downstairs, 

[253] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

sleeping  room  and  living  room  above.  Furnishings  may 
be  made  from  cardboard,  small  reeds,  and  like  material. 
In  one  school,  such  a  house  was  the  joint  property  of  nine 
grades.  All  contributed  to  its  decoration.  The  older  chil- 
dren designed  and  made  wall  papers  and  carpets.  The 
middle  and  lower  grades  did  the  sewing  on  curtains  and 
bed  fixings.  The  middle-lower  grades  also  wove  draperies 
and  rugs  from  raveled  silkaline,  as  described  with  cheese- 
cloth. They  wove  a  hammock  for  the  attic,  a  pillow  to  go 
in  it,  a  rug  to  go  under  it.  All  the  younger  children  helped 
construct  the  furniture,  which  was  made  of  studio  paper — 
white  in  the  sleeping  room,  green  in  the  living  room,  gray 
in  the  dining  room,  and  brown  in  the  kitchen.  All  neces- 
sary furniture  was  made,  including  a  kitchen  stove  and  a 
sink  with  faucets.  The  older  pupils  made  the  house  with 
some  assistance.  There  was  a  window  in  each  room  and 
a  door  between  adjoining  rooms.  Four  third-grade  boys, 
clad  in  long  aprons,  painted  the  outside.  Dolls  of  proper 
size  were  to  occupy  it  when  finished.  The  idea  was  of 
great  interest,  and  many  mothers  —  yes,  and  fathers, — 
were  dragged  in  to  see  the  house.  It  may  be  gradually  re- 
furnished and  so  prove  a  further  means  of  training  and 
enjoyment.  Work  "  for  something "  always  produces 
enthusiasm. 

Work  in  connection  with  special  subjects.  Little  chil- 
dren take  particular  pleasure  in  constructing  things  appro- 
priate to  special  days,  occupations,  or  the  line  of  work 
they  are  doing.  At  the  February  and  May  patriotic  times 
they  may  make  soldiers'  encampments  ;  at  Christmas 
time,  Christmas  trees  and  fireplaces ;  at  Thanksgiving, 
Puritan  houses  and  interiors ;   at  plowing  and  planting 

[254] 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK 

and  harvesting  times,  the  horses,  plows,  rakes,  barrels,  and 
all  the  proper  equipment.  When  they  study  the  Dutch 
people,  Holland  may  grace  the  sand  table,  its  place  to  be 
taken  later  by  an  Eskimo  or  Indian  village.  In  this  way 
the  children  truly  live  the  things  they  are  studying. 

Cooking  and  household  economics.  Though  the  time  is 
coming,  in  the  near  future,  when  simple  apparatus  for  cook- 
ing will  be  installed  in  small  schools,  at  present  real  cook- 
ing lessons  are  impracticable.  Yet  even  now  much  may 
be  done  by  simple  talking  lessons,  in  the  way  of  teaching 
fundamental  principles  that  underlie  cooking  and  usual 
household  operations.  Considerable  instruction  may  be 
given  regarding  the  care  of  a  home.  Books  like  the  "Ele- 
ments of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Cookery"  will  furnish 
substantial  help  in  these  lines. 

Gardening.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  school 
gardening  belongs  under  the  head  of  the  industrial  work. 
It  should  be  emphasized  as  much  as  possible,  and  sugges- 
tions for  home  work  and  interest  in  all  the  home  activities 
should  abound  at  school. 

Time  of  doing  work.  Industrial  lessons  may  be  given 
Friday  afternoons  or  at  other  times  where  it  may  conven- 
iently come.  In  some  schools  it  has  been  substituted  for 
some  of  the  regular  lessons,  once  a  week.  Most  of  this 
work,  in  schools  with  a  crowded  program,  may  be  taken 
incidentally  —  the  children  working  when  their  other  as- 
signed tasks  are  accomplished.  In  schools  where  children 
bring  dinners,  the  industrial  work  may  occupy  part  of  the 
noon  time,  particularly  in  cold  weather.  Much  may  be 
done  at  home  if  it  is  under  school  approval.  Experience 
has  shown  that  the  time  taken  at  school  is  hardly  missed 

[255] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

in  the  accomplishment  of  required  mental  work.  At  any 
rate,  since  this  work  is  just  as  valuable  and  necessary  as 
so-called  study,  it  should  be  had  in  school. 

Conduct  of  class.  In  giving  the  lessons,  one  gets  on 
better  if  not  too  many  work  at  a  time,  though  a  skilled 
teacher  who  has  carefully  planned  her  work  can  keep  quite 
a  class  occupied.  If  a  large  class  is  to  work  on  baskets, 
for  example,  it  is  often  better  to  start  a  few  at  a  time. 
Many  times  older  pupils  can  help  younger.  Care  is  needed 
that  the  industrial  time  does  not  present  a  bedlam.  Proper 
behavior  should  be  required — a  reasonable  degree  of  keep- 
ing quiet,  a  prompt  response  to  requests  of  teacher,  and 
attention  to  her  directions.  Whenever  several  children 
need  the  same  directions  they  should  all  attend  and  receive 
them  together,  as  in  that  way  a  great  saving  of  time  is 
obtained.  Care  should  be  taken  that  eyes  and  nerves  are 
not  strained.  Some  children  cannot  do  weaving  or  fine 
work  of  any  kind.  Much  of  the  work  should  be  done  only 
a  short  while  at  a  time,  and  then  some  change  instituted. 

Material.  Suggestions  for  materials  have  been  made, 
some  of  which  are  repeated  from  the  chapter  on  apparatus. 
In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  nearly  all  materials  for  in- 
dustrial work  may  be  obtained  more  cheaply  at  the  places 
where  such  material  is  used  in  bulk  or  occurs  as'  waste, 
rather  than  from  school-supply  firms.  Much  material  for 
school  industrial  work  may  be  got  for  a  song  —  or  without 
a  song,  for  the  asking  —  if  a  teacher  keeps  her  eyes  open. 
If  materials  cost,  it  has  been  found  wise  in  many  schools 
for  the  teacher  to  get  them  and  then  let  the  children  pay 
for  the  completed  articles.  Seldom  is  the  price  of  any  one 
thing  fifteen  cents,  and  usually  it  is  less  than  seven. 

[256] 


INDUSTRIAL  WORK 

Making  a  start.  A  teacher  feels  herself  to  be  under- 
taking a  great  deal  in  starting  industrial  work  in  her  school, 
but,  begun  simply  with  the  single  thing  one  feels  able  to 
do,  the  work  broadens  steadily  of  itself.  Suggestions  come 
from  all  sides,  and  soon  the  teacher  finds  herself  feeling 
confident  and  showing  considerable  power  in  this  direction. 
The  joy  of  the  children  and  the  help  in  discipline  make 
it  well  worth  while  for  any  teacher  to  put  forth  consider- 
able effort.  Of  course,  regular  courses  in  cooking,  sewing, 
and  manual  training  are  the  best,  and  wherever  possible 
it  is  hoped  they  may  be  had,  but  even  with  such  courses 
a  place  may  be  found  for  many  of  the  things  here 
suggested. 

REFERENCES 

Bartlett  Loom  Manual.   J.  L.  Hammett  Company. 

DoBBS.    Primary  Handwork.    The  Macmillan  Company. 

Foster.    Elementary  Woodworking.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Goodwin.  Course  in  Sewing.  Books  I-III.  Frank  D.  Beattys 
&  Co. 

Greer.    Food  —  What  It  Is  and  Does.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Hapgood.    School  Needlework.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Holland.    Clay  Modelling.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Larsson.  Elementary  Sloyd  and  Whittling,  Silver,  Burdett  & 
Company. 

Leavitt.    Examples  of  Industrial  Education.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Ledyard.    Primary  Manual  Work.    Milton  Bradley  Company. 

Newell.  Constructive  Work  for  Schools  without  Special  Equip- 
ment.   Milton  Bradley  Company. 

Palen  and  Henderson.  What  and  How.  Milton  Bradley  Com- 
pany. 

Patton.    Home  and  School  Sewing.    Newson  &  Company. 

Rich.    Paper  Sloyd.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Ross.    Wood  Turning.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Sage  and  Cooley.  Occupations  for  Little  Fingers.  Charles  Scrib- 
ner's  Sons. 

[257] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Sargent.    Fine  and  Industrial  Arts  in  Elementary  Schools.   Ginn 

and  Company. 
Study  of  History  in  Elementary  Schools.    Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 
The  Delineator.   The  Butterick  Publishing  Company. 
Todd.    Hand-Loom  Weaving.    Rand,  McNally  &  Company. 
Trybom   and   Heller.    Correlated   Handwork.    J.   L.    Hammett 

Company. 
White.    How  to  Make  Baskets.    Doubleday,  Page  &  Company. 
White.    More  Baskets  and  How  to  Make  Them.    Doubleday,  Page 

&  Company. 
Williams  and  Fisher.    Elements  of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of 

Cookery.    The  Macmillan  Company. 
Wilson.     Handbook  of   Domestic   Science  and  Household  Arts. 

Whitcomb  &  Barrows,  Boston. 
A-B-C  Weaving  Looms.    The  A-B-C  Weaving  Loom  Company 

Toledo,  Ohio. 
Bartlett  Looms.   J.  L.  Hammett  Company. 
Day's  White   Paste.     Diamond   Paste  Company,   Broadway,   New 

York. 
Easy  Dye.    J.  L.  Hammett  Company. 
Jellitac.    A  powder  for  making  paste.    Arthur  S.  Hoyt,  90  West 

Broadway,  New  York. 
Leathers,  and  tools  for  working  them.    W.  A.  Hall,  119  Beach 

Street,  Boston. 
Rafha.    McHutchison  Company,  1 7  Murray  Street,  New  York. 
Reeds.    F.  B.  Alexander,  Watertown  Street,  West  Newton,  Mass. 
For  other  materials  see  the  lists  in  the  chapter  on  apparatus. 


[258] 


CHAPTER  XXV 

SPECIAL  EXERCISES 

Friday  afternoon.  For  years  Friday  afternoon  has  been 
accepted  as  a  special-exercise  time  in  many  schools,  par- 
ticularly the  rural  one.  Nowadays  many  teachers  are  put- 
ting the  special  work  in  here  and  there  through  the  week 
instead,  either  by  varying  the  regular  work  to  include  what 
might  be  called  special  or  by  substituting  the  specials  for 
regular  studies  once  a  week,  where  they  seem  to  work  in 
well.  For  our  purpose  it  may  be  well  to  retain  the  old 
idea  of  Friday  afternoon,  though  the  work  may  be  arranged 
as  suggested  above  if  preferred.  Into  Friday,  then,  may 
go  extra  work  in  music  or  drawing  and  such  nature  lessons 
as  cannot  be  included  in  the  opening  exercises  or  closing 
talk  or  in  the  geography,  reading,  or  language  periods. 
Here  may  go  such  of  the  industrial  work  or  handwork  as 
has  not  been  taken  incidentally  or  in  connection  with  some 
allied  work.  This  time  may  include  spelling  matches,  and 
speaking  pieces,  and  anything  else  that  the  teacher  likes. 

Speaking  pieces.  The  old  idea  of  speaking  pieces  before 
the  school  has  many  things  to  recommend  it,  but  it  may  be 
a  source  of  friction  —  as  when  the  big  boy  does  not  want 
to  speak.  Much  of  this  trouble  may  be  removed  by  hav- 
ing the  exercises  less  formal  and  having  the  preparation 
made  at  school.  The  play  element  may  also  be  brought  in, 
having  one  part  of  the  school  entertain  the  rest. 

[259] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Visitation  days.  It  is  well  to  have  public  special  exer- 
cises rather  frequently,  though  these  should  usually  em- 
body work  that  springs  from  the  regular  doings  of  the 
school.  Sometimes  a  visitation  day  should  be  appointed, 
to  which  parents  are  specially  invited.  On  such  days 
almost  the  regular  work  of  the  school  should  go  on,  the 
object  being  to  let  the  friends  of  the  children  know  what 
happens  regularly  in  the  school  day.  The  guests  may  be 
invited  for  morning  or  afternoon  or  both,  as  the  teacher 
sees  fit,  and  the  intent  should  be  to  increase  acquaintance 
and  S3nnpathy  between  school  and  home,  not  to  show  off 
in  any  way.  On  such  days  the  teacher  should  have  her 
advance  work,  with  such  reviews  as  come  up  naturally, 
and  she  should  really  teach  and  drill  just  as  she  usually 
does.  In  a  rural  school  it  is  well  occasionally  to  invite  a 
neighboring  school  to  visit  and  see  a  combination  of  regu- 
lar and  special  work.  Such  hospitality  furnishes  a  strong 
incentive  to  good  school  work. 

Entertainments.  The  other  kind  of  public  exercises 
may  preferably  come  in  the  afternoon  and  may  consist  of 
a  specially  prepared  entertainment.  Invitations  and  pro- 
grams may  be  made  by  the  children.  Sometimes  the  exer- 
cises may  be  general,  sometimes  for  the  celebration  of 
a  special  occasion.  If  they  are  general,  the  children  may 
say  the  poems  and  sing  the  songs  they  have  learned  dur- 
ing the  term.  They  may  dramatize  some  of  the  stories 
they  have  already  played  in  school.  The  teacher  or  some 
of  the  children  may  tell  a  story.  They  may  present  some 
little  play  and  several  tableaus  or  illustrated  dialogues. 
Some  of  their  physical  exercises  may  appear  —  marches 
with  singing,  drills,  and  the  like. 

[  260  ] 


SPECIAL  EXERCISES 

While  it  is  often  well  to  have  the  public  exercises  gen- 
eral in  character,  it  is  a  good  idea  to  have  exercises  for 
the  celebration  of  special  occasions.  Washington's  and 
Lincoln's  birthdays  coming  so  near  each  other,  a  public 
afternoon  might  center  around  their  lives.  Anything 
patriotic  is  suitable  for  such  an  occasion.  Memorial  Day 
also  gives  a  chance  for  a  patriotic  celebration,  and  Christ- 
mas Day  furnishes  an  opportunity  for  a  host  of  beautiful 
things.  Thanksgiving  may  include  many  things  relative 
to  the  harvest,  and  much  pleasure  may  arise  from  repre- 
senting scenes  from  the  history  of  the  Pilgrims  and  Puri- 
tans. Longfellow,  Whittier,  and  other  poets  may  be  given 
a  special  entertainment.  A  special  period  of  history  or  a 
country,  like  Holland  or  Japan,  may  furnish  the  nucleus. 

In  connection  with  such  exercises  there  should  be  speak- 
ing by  children  singly  or  in  groups.  All  should  appear  in 
something  outside  an  exercise  shared  by  the  school,  though 
what  each  child  shall  do  the  teacher  and  circumstances 
must  decide,  since  some  can  do  one  thing  better  and 
others  another.  The  point  must  be  to  have  an  arrange- 
ment in  which  no  one  can  justly  feel  slighted.  Certain 
children  may  assist  in  decorating,  others  may  make  a  wel- 
coming committee,  others  may  pass  programs  or  do  some- 
thing to  bring  themselves  into  prominence,  and  the  least 
forward  child  should  come  into  the  limelight  as  much  as 
possible.  Tact  and  a  kind  heart  will  help  the  teacher  here. 

Preparation  of  material.  Long  experience  has  taught 
that  a  child  who  has  once  learned  to  speak  a  piece  in  a 
certain  way  may  thereafter  be  trusted  to  say  it  in  that  way 
when  the  occasion  arrives,  no  matter  how  many  times  he 
has  been  corrected  in  some  part  and  has  said  the  selection 

[261] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

in  the  new  way.  So  it  is  evident  that  the  only  wise  plan 
is  to  teach  him  rightly  at  first.  Before  giving  him  the 
selection  to  work  upon  by  himself,  he  should  be  made  to 
read  it  to  the  teacher  till  he  easily  and  naturally  reads  it 
with  the  proper  inflections.  This  may  be  brought  about 
by  the  same  means  that  are  employed  in  the  reading  les- 
son or  it  may  be  secured  by  imitation,  but  the  first  ren- 
derings, before  the  learning  begins,  should  be  correct ;  then 
the  child  may  usually  be  relied  upon  to  say  it  properly. 

Dressing  up.  The  children  should  by  all  means  be 
encouraged  to  dress  up  the  schoolroom  appropriately  and 
also  to  array  themselves  to  fit  their  parts.  The  desire  to 
masquerade — to  make  believe — is  very  strong  in  most  chil- 
dren, and  the  realistic  effect  produced  fixes  the  impression 
strongly.  Training  for  the  imagination  is  furnished  also, 
and  the  idea  has  much  to  commend  it.  Teachers  should 
be  careful,  however,  not  to  make  too  great  demands  upon 
the  time  of  parents,  and  as  far  as  possible  the  pupils  and 
teacher  should  make  their  own  preparations.  Children 
will  often  develop  great  power  in  preparing  costumes  and 
in  training  other  children  for  parts.  I  have  in  mind  an 
apparently  rather  stupid  girl  in  a  fourth  grade  who  organ- 
ized and  wholly  managed  several  public  outside  enter- 
tainments based  upon  the  exercises  that  had  been  held 
in  her  school. 

Admission  entertainments.  Usually  it  is  better  for  school 
entertainments  to  be  free.  Occasionally  a  slight  admission 
fee  may  be  charged,  and  the  proceeds  devoted  to  school 
improvements.  It  is  a  good  plan  in  such  cases  for  the 
children  to  do  as  much  of  the  business  part  as  possible, 
in  the  way  of  making  arrangements,  printing  and  selling 

[262] 


SPECIAL  EXERCISES 

tickets,  making  programs,  and  the  like.  It  is  often  well 
to  have  an  exhibition  of  handwork  in  this  connection,  with 
perhaps  a  sale. 

Value  of  entertainments.  Public  exercises  are  of  great 
value  in  creating  interest,  enthusiasm,  and  pride  in  their 
school  on  the  part  of  the  children.  They  also  arouse 
these  sentiments  in  the  parents  and  friends,  and  form 
one  of  the  strongest  links  between  teacher  and  com- 
munity. They  are  worth  much,  but  they  should  not  be 
secured  at  too  great  a  sacrifice  of  regular  school  work. 

REFERENCES 

CoMSTOCK.   A  Dickens  Dramatic  Reader.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Cyr.    Dramatic  First  Reader.    Ginn  and  Company. 

FiNLAY-JoHNSON.  The  Dramatic  Method  of  Teaching.  Ginn  and 
Company. 

George.   The  Song  of  Hiawatha.   A.  Flanagan  Company. 

HoLBROOK.  Dramatic  Reader  for  Lower  Grades.  American  Book 
Company. 

Johnston  and  Barnum.  Book  of  Plays  for  Little  Actors.  Amer- 
ican Book  Company. 

Knight.  Dramatic  Reader  for  Grammar  Grades.  American  Book 
Company. 

NoYES  and  Ray.   Litde  Plays  for  Little  People.   Ginn  and  Company. 

Stevenson.  Children's  Classics  in  Dramatic  Form.  Houghton  Mif- 
flin Company. 

Various  educational  magazines. 


[263] 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
THE  RECITATION 

Preparation.  The  preparation  for  a  lesson  should  be 
made  by  both  teacher  and  pupil.  If  either  is  to  omit  it,  it 
may  better  be  the  pupil  than  the  teacher.  Indeed,  in  cer- 
tain ways  of  taking  a  subject,  the  teacher  is  the  only  one 
who  needs  formal  preparatory  work.  Preparation  by  the 
teacher  involves  gathering  up  what  she  already  knows  of 
a  subject,  reading  from  the  child's  textbook  and  from 
other  books,  direct  observation  of  the  things  which  form 
the  subject  of  the  lesson  when  such  observation  is  possi- 
ble, thinking  out  illustrations,  —  pictures,  objects,  verbal 
illustrations,  —  and  getting  into  line  all  the  material  ac- 
quired, so  that  the  work  may  go  on  logically  and  vividly. 
This  last  includes  deciding  on  manner  of  presentation  and 
arranging  material  according  to  the  plan  selected. 

Ways  of  conducting  recitation.  There  are  many  ways 
of  taking  up  a  recitation.  The  child  may  study  his  text- 
book and  give  it  back  to  the  teacher  word  for  word,  in 
response  to  questions  or  topics.  It  need  not  be  said  that 
this  is  a  poor  way.  Or  he  may  study  his  lesson  and  give 
it  back  in  his  own  words,  in  response  to  the  same  stimuli. 
This  is  better,  but  not  the  best  way.  The  recitation  should 
be  a  thinking  period,  containing  much  discussion,  much 
free  interchange  of  opinions  and  questions  between  teacher 
and  pupils.   The  recitation  time  should  serve  as  a  stimulus 

[264] 


THE  RECITATION 

to  both.  An  occasional  lesson  may  be  confined  to  testing 
the  pupil's  faithfulness  of  study  and  his  knowledge,  but 
most  recitations  should  do  more.  They  should  at  least  add 
much  to  the  child's  knowledge.  The  teacher  should  tell 
him  many  things  directly;  she  should  tell  him  more,  in- 
directly —  by  showing  him  that  he  may  find  out  what  he 
wants  to  know  either  from  books  or  direct  observation. 
She  may  also  lead  him  to  new  knowledge  by  calling  into 
his  mind  the  information  he  has  on  the  subject  under  dis- 
cussion, and  then  leading  him  by  questions  to  see  new 
relations,  new  results,  and  so  arrive  at  new  facts,  ^y  means 
of  such  recitations  the  child  grows  broader  in  knowledge 
and  gets  increased  power  and  skill  in  obtaining  knowledge 
for  himself.  This  last  is  one  of  the  great  aims  in  education^ 
Questions  and  topics  needed.  For  a  long  time  school 
recitation  was  carried  on  by  the  question  and  answer 
method.  In  a  reaction  from  the  great  amount  of  set  work 
that  resulted,  large  use  was  made  of  topics.  The  best 
recitation  work  combines  both.  The  topical  method,  in 
theory,  gives  the  child  a  topic  and  lets  him  talk  about  it 
freely  and  in  his  own  words.  Abuse  of  the  topical  method 
lets  a  pupil  tell  regarding  a  topic  the  ideas  of  some  one 
else  in  the  words  of  some  one  else.  The  child  is  purely 
passive  and  need  do  little  thinking  or  secure  little  gain  in 
power  to  express  himself.  This  is  not  a  necessity,  but  it  is 
of  frequent  occurrence.  The  pupil  being  able  to  recite 
without  words  from  the  teacher,  it  follows  that  a  lazy  or 
ineffective  teacher  soon  becomes, a  mere  figurehead.  She 
presents  the  subject  for  talk  either  verbally  or  through  the 
written  topic  and,  except  for  that,  virtually  drops  out  of  the 
lesson  in  which  she  ought  to  be  the  most  important  factor. 

[265] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

By  that  it  is  not  meant  that  she  ought  to  do  all  the  work, 
but  she  should  be  the  master  spirit  that  produces  thought 
as  well  as  effort  on  the  part  of  the  child.  Topics  should 
never  serve  for  more  than  to  start  the  parts  of  a  lesson. 
Questions  and  answers  and  free  discussion  should  continue 
it.  The  pupil  should  state  his  own  knowledge  or  opinions 
in  his  own  words.  He  has  often  to  gather  his  opinions 
from  the  book,  but  they  should  become  vividly  his  before 
the  lesson  is  through.  To  recite  a  lesson  through  by  either 
questions  or  topics  and  then,  if  time  serves,  to  recite  it 
again  is  more  than  absurd. 

Oral  teaching,  or  development.  Oral  teaching,  or  devel- 
opment work,  should  be  a  prominent  feature  in  many 
recitations.  It  is  particularly  suited  to  young  children  for 
a  great  deal  of  their  work,  but  it  is  also  extremely  helpful 
with  older  classes,  and  no  kind  of  class  work  is  so  produc- 
tive of  the  habits  of  inquisitiveness  and  of  thought,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  habit  of  free  expression.  We  may  well  have 
this  kind  of  work  largely  increased  in  most  of  our  schools 
of  more  advanced  grades. 

All  children,  even  the  dullest,  acquire  a  considerable 
fund  of  knowledge.  In  development  work,  this  knowledge 
is  turned  about  and  seen  in  new  relations,  and  out  of  this 
process  new  knowledge  springs  through  the  child's  own 
thought  wisely  guided  by  the  teacher.  This  kind  of  teach- 
ing is  very  useful  in  connection  with  geography  and  science 
work,  but  it  need  not  stop  there ;  it  will  help  greatly  to  have 
more  of  it  in  connection  with  arithmetic,  grammar,  his- 
tory, in  fact  nearly  all  subjects.  Power  to  deduce  the  new 
from  the  old  is  of  great  service  in  life ;  also  power  to  turn 
one's  knowledge  upon  situations  as  they  come  up  and  get  at 

[266] 


THE  RECITATION 

the  connected  truths.  In  many  of  our  schools  we  do  not 
have  enough  recitation  work  that  is  not  preceded  by  direct 
book  study  of  the  subject  to  be  handled. 

It  is  often  helpful  to  read  over  and  discuss  with  a  class 
the  advance  lesson  in  a  subject  —  a  process  productive  of 
thought,  though  of  a  different  kind  from  that  employed  in 
developing  a  lesson. 

It  is  often  wise  to  have  the  lesson  dug  out  by  the  chil- 
dren without  the  aid  of  class  discussion  first,  but  too  close 
following  of  this  plan  has  made  children  prone  to  accept 
stated  facts  without  thought  and  to  feel  that  books  are  the 
only  seat  of  information. 

Developing  the  lesson  is  a  great  help  in  fixing  values  ; 
finding  out  what  parts  are  essential,  what  parts  illustrative, 
what  parts  minor,  what  parts  ornamental  —  put  in  for  attrac- 
tion. Something  of  this  sort  may  come  also  in  connection 
with  discussing  the  lesson,  but  many  a  child  has  no  idea 
that  in  study  one  needs  to  find  out  the  gist  of  the  matter 
and  proceed  from  it  to  the  full  development  of  the  subject, 
—  that  is,  get  the  skeleton  and  then  find  proper  covering 
for  it,  —  a  process  that  is  usually  followed  in  a  well-given 
development  lesson ;  so  such  a  lesson  trains  the  children 
gradually  to  ability  in  that  direction.  It  is  necessary  in  all 
this  work  to  distinguish  carefully  between  reasoning  and 
guessing  and  to  train  the  child  toward  the  former. 

There  should  be  study  following  the  development  reci- 
tation, for  the  purpose  of  fixing  the  facts  taken  and  for 
getting  additional  information.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed 
that  a  child's  work  in  school  is  to  cease  to  be  work  because 
he  learns  things  and  how  to  learn  more  things  easily  in 
his  classes. 

[267] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Assignment.  Part  of  each  recitation  must  be  given  to 
assigning  work  for  study.  This  may  occupy  a  minute  or 
two,  or  in  some  cases  a  rather  large  part  of  the  recitation 
may  be  taken  for  it.  In  either  case  the  assignment  should 
be  clear  enough  and  full  enough  so  that  no  mistakes  can 
occur.  Every  pupil  should  know  just  what  is  expected  and 
have  an  idea  of  how  to  go  to  work.  There  should  be  no 
excuse  for  argument  later  as  to  where  the  lesson  was  to 
begin  or  leave  off  or  how  it  was  to  be  done  in  general. 
A  teacher's  indefinite  assignment  is  often  responsible  for 
a  child's  indefinite  achievement.  This  may  hold  true 
equally  when  the  assignment  is  from  one  topic  or  page 
to  another  or  when,  the  whole  lesson  being  development, 
the  assignment  in  a  way  occupies  all  the  recitation  period. 
It  is  the  work  of  this  part  of  the  recitation  period  to  cause 
the  pupil  to  find  out  what  he  is  to  learn  and  how  he  is  to 
go  about  it ;  in  other  words,  to  bring  him  face  to  face 
with  his  problem  for  the  next  lesson,  without  which  help 
he  will  often  waste  much  time. 

Questioning.  Skill  in  questioning  is  greatly  needed  in 
development  work  and  in  class  work  of  any  kind.  If  a 
teacher  has  little  power  to  question,  she  should  observe 
good  teaching  and  profit  by  it,  and  she  should  practice  by 
thinking  out  carefully  what  seenis  a  good  way  of  taking  up 
a  lesson.  She  may  select  a  geography  lesson,  for  example, 
and  make  a  careful  plan  with  thoughtful  questions.  She 
may  think  what  she  will  ask,  what  different  answers  this 
question  may  bring,  what  she  will  ask  if  she  gets  this 
answer,  what  if  she  gets  that,  what  if  still  another.  In 
this  way  she  may  train  herself  to  a  habit  of  questioning 
well  on  the  spur  of  the  moment. 

[  268  ] 


THE  RECITATION 

Questions  should  be  clear,  simply  worded,  and  definite. 
Cloudy,  indefinite  questions  bring  hazy  answers,  given  at 
a  venture,  or  answers  far  away  from  what  the  teacher  has 
in  mind.  Questions  should  be  given  in  logical  order,  that 
the  child  may  follow  the  train  of  thought  smoothly  and 
easily  and  see  all  along  what  the  teacher  is  aiming  at. 

The  teacher  should  be  careful  not  to  ask  leading  ques- 
tions, those  in  which  the  idea  of  the  answer  is  conveyed 
ever  so  slightly.  If  a  pupil  does  not  know,  it  is  right  that 
he  should  realize  it ;  and  if  a  teacher  is  to  do  all  the  work, 
it  should  be  done  openly  and  not  under  pretense  that  the 
child  is  a  factor.  Questions  that  may  be  answered  by 
Yes  or  No,  or  other  alternate  questions,  are  better  avoided. 
They  may  be  used  occasionally,  but  the  habit  of  asking 
them  is  easily  formed,  and  they  do  not  furnish  the  best 
form  of  questioning. 

Too  simple  and  unnecessary  questions  should  be  omitted. 
Teachers  generally  talk  too  much,  and  the  time  taken  by 
such  questions  may  be  used  to  advantage  for  other  things. 
Questions  should  probe.  The  answers  should  show  what 
knowledge  the  child  really  has.  Thought,  active  thought, 
should  be  required  from  the  pupils. 

Roundabout  questions  should  be  avoided  and  those  that 
use  unnecessary  words.  In  general,  it  is  better  to  use 
"  what,"  "  where,"  ''  when,"  and  **  how  "  to  start  questions 
rather  than  to  end  them.  Such  beginnings  as  "and," 
"now,"  "well,"  "who  can  tell,"  "what  can  you  say," 
"what  about,"  are  not  good.  Such  are  used  so  often  by 
many  teachers  as  to  become  absolute  mannerisms,  and 
children  are  quick  to  notice,  to  imitate,  or  to  laugh  at 
anything  in  the  teacher  which  resembles  mannerism. 

[269] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Questions  should  be  given  distinctly  and  not  repeated. 
They  should  be  given  before  the  name  of  the  pupil  who 
is  to  answer,  but  the  name  should  follow  instantly,  with 
but  few  exceptions.  They  are  less  wearying  if  given  with 
a  falling  inflection.  The  names  are  better  called  in  this 
way  also. 

Distribution.  Questions  should  be  well  distributed. 
They  should  not  all  go  to  the  good  scholars  because  they 
can  answer  better,  nor  to  the  poor  ones  because  they  need 
them  more.  All  should  have  a  chance,  all  should  have 
their  time.  Some  will  do  more  in  their  time  than  others, 
as  is  the  way  of  the  world.  The  best  will  be  able  to  do 
harder  things  than  the  poorer  scholars,  but  it  is  not  possi- 
ble that  all  should  come  out  at  the  end  of  the  year  knowing 
the  same  amount.  That  would  truly  be  a  "lock  step"  of 
the  graded-school  system  that  might  well  be  complained  of. 
The  lower  attainment  of  the  slower  child  may  be  as  great 
for  him  as  the  almost  perfect  work  of  the  more  gifted. 
The  work  of  any  class  should  be  of  so  broad  a  range  as 
to  allow  for  the  uneven  equipment  of  the  members. 

The  teacher's  questions  should  not  be  aimed  at  half 
the  class  or  at  a  little  group  or  at  individuals.  All  should 
feel  themselves  included  in  whatever  is  going  on.  Ques- 
tions should  not  go  around  the  class  except  in  a  very  few 
cases  of  drill  work — in  which  much  time  may  be  saved  and 
the  turns  swing  along  so  fast  that  all  have  to  be  alert  any- 
way. Even  then  the  teacher  needs  to  be  magnetic  and 
watchful.  It  is  not  well  to  question  alphabetically  or  in 
any  set  order.  Name  cards,  too,  are  dangerous,  as  one  con- 
tinually gets  the  square  peg  in  the  round  hole — the  weakest 
child  with  all  the  hardest  questions,  and  the  brightest  dull 

[  270  ] 


THE  RECITATION 

because  of  insufficient  exercise  for  his  powers.  Nor  should 
the  questions  be  given  for  all  to  answer,  as  concert  work 
is  seldom  valuable. 

Volunteer  answers  need  to  be  carefully  looked  out  for. 
Many  children  who  do  not  raise  hands  can  answer  ques- 
tions. The  teacher  gets  into  the  way  of  working  with  the 
active  children.  Time  is  lost  in  waiting  for  the  hands,  and 
— as  was  said  above — prompt  questions,  without  waits  for 
hands  or  before  calling  names,  save  much  time.  There  is 
no  time  to  spare  for  waiting  for  these  things,  nor  before 
the  next  question.  The  questions  should  be  ready,  as  they 
usually  will  be  if  the  teacher  knows  her  subject  and  has 
trained  herself  to  think  logically  from  point  to  point. 

Attention  a  characteristic  of  a  good  recitation.  A  good 
recitation  must  command  the  eager,  interested  attention  of 
the  class.  This  can  never  be  gained  without  what  we  call 
animation.  No  shadowy,  colorless  lesson  ever  aroused  in 
the  pupils  the  attention  that  might  otherwise  have  been 
there.  Animation  does  not  mean  noise.  One  does  not 
have  to  talk  every  minute,  nor  in  a  loud  voice.  Distinct- 
ness and  life  may  be  present,  though  the  voice  is  low.  A 
high-pitched  voice  defeats  its  own  ends  by  producing  a 
nervous  distraction  akin  to  pain.  A  mumble,  however, 
seldom  goes  with  animation.  Jerky,  noisy  movements ; 
walking  up  and  down ;  wringing  hands ;  gesticulating  — 
all  such  nervous  ways  are  no  help  in  producing  the  effect 
that  animation  and  life  of  the  right  kind  bring. 

The  lesson  needs  to  be  introduced  in  a  way  striking 
enough  to  at  once  attract  the  attention  of  the  children, 
and  attention  once  gained  should  be  held.  Many  teachers 
work  along  on  so  dead  a  level  that  onq  may  stay  many 

[271] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

minutes  in  the  room  and  have  only  a  general  idea  of  what 
the  teacher  is  working  for.  Children  come  to  the  recitation 
with  minds  filled  with  thoughts  of  which  the  teacher  has  little 
idea.  The  lesson  should  start  in  such  a  way  as  may  serve 
for  a  preparation  for  the  work  to  come.  Aimless  thoughts  -^ 
those  called  up  by  what  the  child  was  just  working  upon, 
and  any  other  inadvertent  ones — should  be  driven  out  and 
the  ideas  needed  for  the  comprehension  of  what  is  to  form 
the  subject  of  the  lesson  brought  into  prominence  by  a 
few  short  preparatory  questions.  Then  the  lesson  will 
swing  along  smoothly. 

Variety  a  help.  For  the  holding  of  attention,  variety  is 
needed  —  new  ways  of  taking  up  a  subject,  little  surprises 
of  manner  or  thought.  Much  drill  work  has  to  be  done 
in  any  class.  In  this  there  is  often  not  enough  that  is  new 
to  hold  the  attention,  and  reviews  without  attention  do  not 
establish  facts  in  memory.  Here  comes  in  the  value  of 
devices  which  shall  produce  interested  attention  and  so 
serve  to  fix  the  required  thing.  Experiments  and  illustra- 
tions, besides  helping  in  many  other  ways,  justify  them- 
selves by  their  effect  upon  attention. 

Other  reasons  for  loss  of  attention.  Since,  whenever  the 
teacher  loses  the  attention  of  her  class  for  any  reason,  she 
has  to  gain  it  all  over,  she  should  beware  of  losing  it.  At- 
tention lessens  if  a  child  cannot  see  or  cannot  hear  or  is 
physically  annoyed  in  any  way.  It  vanishes  when  one  goes 
for  any  length  of  time  without  having  anything  to  do  ;  as 
when  one  child  works  for  a  large  part  of  a  recitation 
period  over  a  difficult  problem  or  sentence  and  all  the  rest 
of  the  class  sit  and  presumably  attend.  One  can  see  the 
interest  and  attention  waver,  see  pupil  after  pupil  relax. 

[272] 


THE  RECITATION 

Rarely  can  effort  pull  them  up  again.  A  little  to  do  often, 
rather  than  a  lot  occasionally,  is  the  better  way.  It  is  not 
necessary  that  a  child  do  all  of  an  exercise  himself  because 
it  troubles  him.  He  can  do  a  part  and  hear  other  pupils 
finish.  Individual  work  at  map  or  board,  prolonged  to  any 
length,  sets  all  the  class  free  to  gather  wool  with  wander- 
ing wits. 

If  a  teacher  takes  time  during  a  class  to  help  studying 
children,  she  may  be  sure  of  loss  of  attention ;  though  of 
course  she  should  see  that  the  pupils  not  reciting  are 
controlled  and  busy  during  class  time. 

Sympathy  between  teacher  and  class  is  a  great  help  in 
holding  attention.  They  simply  walk  the  path  together  with 
pleasure,  the  teacher's  interest  stimulating  the  child's. 

Responsibility  of  class.  A  class  should  be  made  to  feel 
a  responsibility  for  attention.  The  stimulus  should  not 
have  to  come  wholly  from  the  teacher.  "It  is  your  busi- 
ness to  make  me  learn  it  and  like  it "  should  not  be  the 
governing  feeling.  A  class  should  feel  that  it  is  only  polite 
to  look  attentive ;  to  listen,  think,  exert  itself.  Praise  is 
often  effective  in  securing  the  right  attitude,  though  some 
children,  if  much  praised,  think  that  they  have  achieved 
and  cease  effort.  Usually  it  is  a  good  means  to  employ. 
The  child  should  feel  that  "  I  don't  know  "  is  not  a  de- 
sirable answer.  He  should  not  be  ashamed  not  to  know, 
but  he  should  have  made  an  effort  to  overcome  the  condi- 
tion. Usually  he  can  be  made  to  answer  the  question  by 
means  of  further  questions,  but  he  should  have  a  per- 
sonal responsibility  for  knowing.  "  I  don't  know,"  when 
it  implies  "  I  don't  care,"  should  be  done  away  with  by 
some  means. 

[  273  ] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Attitude  of  class.  Though  military  precision  is  passing, 
yet  it  can  do  no  harm  to  insist  that  during  a  recitation 
period  pupils  should  sit  in  a  good  position.  During  much 
of  the  studying  time  they  lean  above  the  desk,  so  the 
class  time  may  restfully  maintain  a  more  erect  attitude, 
though  it  is  not  necessary  for  a  class  to  appear  as  if 
iron  rods  supported  the  backs  of  the  children.  Sprawly, 
slouchy  positions  are  physically  harmful,  and  the  atti- 
tude of  mind  produced  is  not  a  helpful  one.  In  reciting, 
pupils  should  stand  erect,  free  from  chair  and  desk,  with 
hands  in  an  easy  position.  They  should  stand  still.  They 
should  hold  their  heads  up  and  speak  distinctly,  answer- 
ing with  decision  as  though  they  were  sure  of  things. 
Answers  made  with  a  rising  inflection  produce  an  uncer- 
tain way  of  thinking  after  a  time.  The  answer  should 
be  made  in  such  a  way  that  it  will  be  unnecessary  to 
repeat  it.  Incidentally  it  may  be  said  that  it  is  not  often 
a  good  plan  for  the  teacher  to  make  any  response  to  a 
child's  answer.  A  large  number  of  teachers  repeat  all  or 
a  part  of  the  answer,  or  say  '"  yes  "  or  "  that  will  do"  or 
"that  is  sufficient"  or  "good,"  or  use  some  other  form 
of  response. 

Characteristics  of  a  teacher,  helping  to  a  good  recitation. 
To  make  a  recitation  what  it  should  be,  a  teacher  needs 
to  be  resourceful;  if  one  way  won't  bring  it,  another  must. 
She  has  to  be  level-headed,  able  to  guide  the  child  away 
from  the  trivial  to  the  important  without  suppressing  his 
desire  to  work  and  his  self-confidence.  She  needs  intu- 
ition— power  to  see  where  his  troubles  lie,  what  his  line  of 
thought  is  —  that  she  may  know  how  to  help  him.  She 
needs  confidence  —  no  fear  but  that  she  will  accomplish 

[274] 


THE  RECITATION 

her  aim  if  she  makes  effort  enough.  She  must  be  fully 
impressed  with  the  idea  that  pouring  in  and  drawing  out 
are  not  true  education.  She  must  be  willing  to  work.  No 
teacher  who  does  not  know  her  subject  matter  has  a  right 
to  demand  that  the  child  have  a  knowledge  of  his  lesson. 
She  who  cannot  hear  the  recitation  without  great  use  of 
the  textbook  should  allow  the  pupil  to  have  his  open  also. 
Willingness  to  work  does  not  apply  to  study  alone ;  recita- 
tions often  demand  what  seems  like  manual  labor.  Above 
all,  the  teacher  needs  conscience  combined  with  common 
sense.  She  must  know  when  to  drill,  when  to  let  it  alone  ; 
when  to  push  a  child  hard,  when  to  desist.  In  general, 
teachers  do  not  drill  upon  what  they  are  teaching  till  they 
have  driven  things  home,  but  a  few  overdo  it.  The  recita- 
tion is  the  important  work  of  the  school  day,  the  teacher  is 
the  most  important  factor  in  the  recitation ;  it  will  stand 
or  fall  through  her. 

Summary.  In  ordinary  recitation  work  the  pupils  are 
dealt  with  in  a  mass,  and  interest  and  enthusiasm  come 
with  the  contact  of  the  varying  minds.  This  causes  it  to 
be  a  more  efficient  factor  in  education  than  is  the  study 
period.  Some  recitation  periods  may  well  be  taken  to  help 
the  class  members  individually,  but  this  is  work  of  a  dif- 
ferent kind  and  may  be  classed  under  the  head  of  study. 
It  need  not  be  considered  here.  The  recitation,  as  we 
have  been  treating  it,  should  test  the  child's  knowledge 
of  the  subject ;  it  should  teach  him  new  matter,  directly 
in  the  class  or  through  opening  avenues  for  him  to  follow. 
It  should  arouse  his  interest,  show  him  how  to  work,  in- 
crease his  power  and  skill  in  working  lines.  He  should 
come  from  it  feeling  that  learning  counts,  that  all  he  can 

[275] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

contribute  to  class  work  is  appreciated,  that  all  around  him 
lie  means  of  education,  and  that  his  may  be  the  joy  of 
using  these  means. 

REFERENCES 

Betts.   The  Recitation.    Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 

Charters.    Methods  of  Teaching.    Row,  Peterson  and  Company. 

Hughes.    Mistakes  in  Teaching.    A.  Flanagan  Company. 

McMuRRY.    How  to  Study.    Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 

McMuRRY.    Method  of  the  Recitation.    The  Macmillan  Company. 

Prince.  Courses  of  Studies  and  Methods  of  Teaching.  Ginn  and 
Company. 

Thompson.    Minimum  Essentials.    Ginn  and  Company. 

Tompkins.  Philosophy  of  School  Management  Ginn  and  Com- 
pany. 


[276] 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

PLAY 

Play  in  school  is  allowable  at  proper  times  and  places. 
These  times  and  places  are  in  recreation  hour  and  when- 
ever it  will  make  school  work  easier  and  more  effective. 

Teacher  should  superintend  play.  The  children's  plays 
should  be  superintended  by  the  teacher,  though  not  usu- 
ally controlled  by  her.  The  superintendence  is  necessary 
because  without  it  the  plays  often  become  rough,  boister- 
ous, and  dangerous.  Certain  children  are  abused  on  the 
playground,  either  by  neglect  or  by  being  made  a  butt 
for  ridicule.  Improper  conversation  often  occurs,  as  well 
as  improper  behavior.  Quarrels  are  of  frequent  happen- 
ing, and  the  rights  of  the  neighbors  are  not  respected. 
The  teacher  can  look  out  for  all  these  things,  teach  the 
children  courteous  conduct,  build  up  character  generally, 
teach  many  facts  for  right  living,  get  closer  to  the  hearts 
and  lives  of  the  children,  and  learn  many  ways  of  ap- 
proach, through  the  recreation.  From  little  ideas  gleaned 
on  the  playground  she  may  often  modify  her  plans  of 
instruction  in  almost  any  line. 

Teacher  should  not  control  play.  It  is  well  for  the 
teacher  to  show  new  games  to  the  children,  but  it  is  a  mis- 
take to  force  her  kind  of  playing  upon  them  when  they 
wish  to  work  out  plays  for  themselves,  since  from  such 
thinking-out  of  games  they  get  a  great  deal  of  development 

[  277  ] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

in  various  ways.  She  may  often  make  a  suggestion  that 
will  cause  them  to  think  in  certain  lines.  She  may  play 
with  them  if  they  want  her  to,  but  she  must  be  careful 
that  the  free  association  of  the  grounds  in  no  way  falls 
short  of  dignity  on  her  part.  There  are  ways  and  ways  of 
playing  with  children,  and  the  teacher  should  choose  the 
right  way.  She  should  also  never  play  so  hard  with  one 
set  of  children  as  to  become  unconscious  of  what  the 
rest  are  doing. 

Kinds  of  games.  Many  different  kinds  of  games  are 
needed  and  will  spring  up.  Some  children  like  to  play 
in  the  sand,  and  little  hints  thrown  out  by  the  teacher  will 
cause  this  play  to  reproduce  many  of  the  schoolroom  sug- 
gestions. It  has  already  been  said  that  children  should 
ever  be  encouraged  to  reproduce  in  their  out-of-school  play, 
both  in  the  school  yard  and  at  home,  the  scenes  and  events 
they  are  studying  about.  This  constructive  play  is  helpful 
in  development  as  well  as  in  producing  interest. 

Plays  will  arise  that  call  for  jumping,  running,  pulling. 
Wrestling  will  abound.  All  these  have  a  part  to  perform 
in  developing  certain  muscles,  and  they  will  come  along 
about  when  they  are  needed  for  that  development.  Some 
of  them  should  be  discouraged  ;  as  too  much  tree  climbing, 
or  games  like  snap-the-whip  or  leapfrog  when  some  of 
the  boys  in  the  game  are  much  stronger  than  the  others, 
though  leapfrog  with  care  may  go  on  all  right.  Too  vio- 
lent strain  on  the  back  should  be  guarded  against,  so 
supervision  is  needed.  Only  soft  balls  should  be  allowed 
on  the  grounds  —  or  bean  bags,  or  a  basket  ball.  Real  base- 
ball should  be  played  only  in  a  part  of  the  yard  that  can 
be  given  up  to  it. 

[278] 


PLAY 

Johnson's  "'  Education  by  Plays  and  Games  "  and  Ban- 
croft's book,  "Games  for  Playground,  Home,  School,  and 
Gymnasium,"  are  excellent  for  teachers,  as  they  suggest 
countless  games  and  increase  the  teacher's  knowledge  of 
reasons  for  playing. 

Indoor  recess.  An  out-of-door  recess  is  the  best  kind, 
but  often  recess  has  to  be  held  indoors.  If  there  is  an 
unused  room,  it  should  be  given  to  the  children  for  a 
recreation  room  and  they  should  be  allowed  to  play 
freely  and  noisily,  though  not  with  boisterous  roughness. 
Marching  or  ring  games  are  good  —  or  tag,  or  aimless 
running.  Bean-bag  games  and  ball  playing  of  the  safe 
kind  may  occur. 

If  recess  must  be  in  the  schoolroom,  games  should  be 
instituted  that,  while  reasonably  quiet,  call  for  vigorous 
movement.  Games  like  those  of  a  children's  party  should 
be  used.  Leaping  over  desks,  wrestling,  throwing  things 
at  random,  anything  that  may  prove  destructive  to  furni- 
ture or  the  children's  respect  for  the  place,  should  not 
be  allowed. 

Children  should  take  part  in  recreation.  The  recreation 
time  should  be  given  up  to  recreation.  Children  should 
not  be  allowed  to  work  at  tasks  during  the  playtime,  nor 
should  the  teacher  work.  This  is  a  social  time  and  should 
be  kept  so.  Neither  should  the  pupils  be  allowed  to  sit 
quietly  at  the  desks.   There  should  be  movement. 

Noon  rest  time.  In  the  longer  rest  time  which  occurs 
at  noon  —  if  pupils  come  from  a  distance  and  bring  din- 
ners or  if  they  habitually  come  early — a  certain  amount  of 
industrial  work  or  reading  may  be  done ;  or  the  children 
may  play  with  dolls,  or  play  store  as  suggested  under  the 

[279] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

arithmetic  work ;  or  in  warmer  weather  much  may  be  done 
in  gardening  and  nature  study.  The  pupils  should  not 
be  encouraged  to  bring  dinners  if  their  homes  are  near 
enough  so  that  they  can  reasonably  go  and  come  in  the 
given  time.  If  the  pupils  stay  to  dinner,  the  teacher  should 
stay  too  or  see  that  the  children  are  chaperoned  in  some 
way.  The  iniquity  that  has  existed  in  some  rural  schools, 
partly  because  of  the  entire  freedom  from  oversight  during 
the  noon  hour,  is  appalling.  If  both  teacher  and  children 
bring  dinners,  many  suggestions  for  table  manners  may 
be  given  under  the  head  of  play,  by  having  breakfast, 
dinner,  or  tea  parties.  Incidentally  there  may  be  some 
teaching  about  proper  things  to  eat,  but  this  calls  for  great 
tact  in  the  handling. 

Play  in  connection  with  regular  school  work.  Much 
of  the  regular  school  work  may  be  eased  and  illuminated 
by  seizing  upon  the  play  element  which  may  be  found  in 
it.  Nearly  all  the  work  of  the  little  children  abounds  in 
opportunities  for  it,  and  much  of  that  with  older  pupils. 
Suggestions  have  been  given,  under  the  proper  headings, 
for  games  to  be  used  in  connection  with  many  school  sub- 
jects. With  the  little  ones  it  is  frequently  active  play,  with 
the  older  the  race  or  contest  element  is  more  prominent. 
Choosing  sides,  keeping  personal  tally,  trying  individually 
to  get  things  done  first,  many  ideas  like  these,  a  skillful 
teacher  will  use  a  great  deal,  and  her  skill  will  appear  in 
thinking  out  the  contests  and  preventing  friction  and  ac- 
cusations of  unfairness  in  the  execution.  "  Make  believe," 
"let  us  pretend,"  will  help  too  in  conquering  school  work. 
Discipline  is  softened  and  made  easy  by  introduction  of 
a  joke,  a  pretense,  a  contest,  or  a  game  of  any  sort. 

[280] 


PLAY 

A  school  life  in  which  play  is  given  its  proper  value  will 
be  a  school  life  fruitful  in  results  and  one  to  be  looked 
back  upon  with  pleasure. 

REFERENCES 

Bancroft.  Games  for  Playground,  Home,  School,  and  Gymnasium. 

The  Macmillan  Company. 
Curtis.    Play  and  Recreation  for  the  Open  Country.    Ginn  and 

Company. 
Johnson.    Education  by  Plays  and  Games.    Ginn  and  Company. 
Johnson.  What  to  do  at  Recess.   Ginn  and  Company. 


[281] 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

DISCIPLINE 

Reasons  for  need  of  discipline.  The  young  teacher's 
greatest  stumbHng  block,  the  older  teacher's  greatest  trial, 
is  often  the  disciplining  and  controlling  of  the  school.  A 
school  needs  discipline  for  many  reasons ;  first,  because 
without  it  no  school  can  do  good  work  and  economize 
time  and  effort.  It  is  the  wheel  grease  which  makes  prog- 
ress easy.  Children,  left  to  themselves  in  work,  are  rest- 
less, noisy,  rude,  ineffective  in  many  ways.  They  waste 
their  own  time  and  that  of  others.  They  know  this  as  well 
as  anyone,  and  an  undisciplined  school  scorns  the  teacher 
who  permits  misbehavior  and  knows  it  is  having  a  good 
time  at  the  expense  of  valuable  things.  Yet  such  is  the 
lack  of  self-control  that  children  seldom  fail  to  take 
advantage  of  opportunities  offered. 

So  a  second  reason  for  discipline  appears.  It  is  needed 
that  the  pupil  may  be  taught  the  value  and  power  of  self- 
control  — just  the  old  question  of  development,  of  education. 
A  child  needs  to  learn  regard  for  the  rights  of  others,  re- 
spect for  law  and  a  natural  obedience  to  it — self-restraint. 
He  needs  to  develop  high  ideals,  with  correct  habits  of  be- 
havior. In  short,  he  needs  to  grow  toward  beauty  of  char- 
acter. School  discipline  should  aim  for  all  these  things, 
not  merely  to  procure  momentary  obedience,  which,  though 
valuable,  is  minor  in  comparison  with  the  other  results. 

[  282  ] 


DISCIPLINE 

Reasons  why  discipline  is  difficult.  Discipline  is  made 
difficult  by  many  causes.  First,  there  is  always  a  strong 
personal  element  in  it.  The  way  the  teacher  feels,  the  way 
the  child  feels,  both  generally  and  in  the  particular  instance, 
must  always  determine  the  direction  and  the  effect  of  the 
discipline. 

Second,  with  the  young  teacher  a  misunderstanding 
of  what  constitutes  good  discipline  often  enters  in.  The 
following  questions  occur  to  her  :  How  much  is  necessary 
noise  and  movement.  How  much  self-control  should  be 
expected  from  the  child  ?  What  is  really  the  difference 
between  that  which  many  good  teachers  allow  under  the 
head  of  freedom,  and  that  which  others  condemn  as  pure, 
unbridled  license  on  the  part  of  the  school  ?  What  should 
be  suppressed  and  what  allowed  ?  Is  the  school  running 
away  or  merely  moving  with  a  free,  allowable  stride  ? 

Third,  many  troubles  in  discipline  come  from  a  lack  of 
tact — from  failure  to  comprehend  the  child's  motives  and 
to  see  at  once  how  to  get  to  work  with  him,  and  from  the 
doing  of  the  wrong  thing,  which  antagonizes  him. 

Fourth,  many  more  troubles  come  from  failure  to  or- 
ganize the  work  in  such  a  way  that  the  pupils  must  keep 
busy  constantly  and  without  friction. 

Fifth,  often  a  teacher  fails  to  discipline  because  she  is 
afraid  of  incurring  the  dislike  of  the  children  or  of  their 
parents,  or  from  a  grounded  opinion  that  she  must  govern 
by  love  and  respect  or  other  motives  that  fail  to  appeal  to 
the  children  she  has  in  hand. 

Lastly  —  often,  indeed — the  teacher  does  not  control  the 
pupils  because  she  has  no  idea  of  what  to  do  in  the  given 
case.  She  sees  the  trouble  but  knows  not  how  to  remedy  it. 

[283] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

So,  from  one  cause  and  another,  we  have  a  large  num- 
ber of  undisciplined  or  somewhat  badly  disciplined  schools, 
a  large  number  of  teachers  who  are  mildly  tortured  by  the 
controlling  of  their  schools,  and  a  large  number  of  children 
who  are  not  being  rightly  handled.  Each  of  the  above 
causes  for  poorly  controlled  schools  will  be  considered  in 
this  discussion. 

What  constitutes  good  order.  Perhaps  the  first  thing 
for  a  teacher  to  do  is  to  find  out  what  constitutes  disorder. 
A  school  may  be  said  to  be  out  of  order  when  the  condi- 
tions in  it  are  such  that  the  children  are  disturbing  each 
other,  preventing  the  best  work  being  done  in  the  easiest 
and  most  effective  way.  A  school  is  out  of  the  teacher's 
control  when  she  feels  that  she  cannot  at  will  produce  the 
conditions  that  she  desires.  It  does  not  at  all  follow  that 
it  must  remain  that  way. 

Noise  a  condition  of  disorder.  Many  things  may  disturb 
so  that  children  cannot  work.  Noise  is  one,  so  a  nqisy 
school  is  not  commendable.  If  pupils  are  able  to  work  in 
it,  it  still  remains  true  that  they  are  subjected  to  a  nerve 
strain  such  as  comes  from  working  in  the  midst  of  noise 
anywhere.  Some  children  simply  cannot  work  in  a  hubbub. 
A  quiet  school  does  not  mean  a  dead  school,  not  one  where 
cast-iron  order  or  absolute  lack  of  movement  prevails.  A 
proper  working  noise  should  be  allowed  ;  the  hum  of  labor 
is  not  objectionable,  but  one  would  gladly  lessen  the  sound 
of  labor's  hum  in  a  cotton  mill  or  a  boiler  shop  if  it  were 
possible,  and  the  schoolroom  differs  from  many  workshops 
in  that  its  labor  is  largely  mental  and  so  more  greatly  in 
need  of  quiet.  A  school  should  be  as  still  as  is  compatible 
with  good  earnest  work  and  the  comfort  of  the  pupils. 

[284] 


DISCIPLINE 

Training  in  being  quiet  is  not  necessarily  an  injury.  To 
always  move  the  lips  when  one  reads  is  rather  a  hindrance 
sometimes  ;  to  whisper  or  talk  aloud  when  the  spirit  moves 
is  often  a  social  rudeness.  There  is  no  need  that  boys 
should  always  step  as  hea.vily  as  they  can,  nor  be  moving 
all  the  time,  nor  go  with  an  uproar  when  they  do  move. 
To  be  able  to  wait  a  suitable  time  for  getting  things  is 
often  an  advantage. 

Movement  favorable  to  disorder.  Children's  work  is 
disturbed  by  anything  that  distracts  the  attention.  Moving 
things  always  demand  attention,  so,  in  a  schoolroom,  un- 
necessary movement  should  be  avoided.  Any  necessary 
moving  is  of  course  legitimate,  but  the  law  of  attention  and 
movement  being  absolute,  it  follows  that  the  movements 
should  be  not  only  quiet  and  reasonably  infrequent  but 
performed  in  the  most  natural  way.  The  pupil  expects  the 
teacher  to  be  moving,  so  it  is  often  better  that  she  be  the 
one  to  move.  Instead  of  having  every  child  in  a  class 
tumble  out  of  his  seat  at  a  certain  stage  in  the  work  and 
shuffle  down  the  aisle  to  get  a  piece  of  paper,  it  were 
better  that  paper  enough  be  given  out  at  first  or  that  the 
teacher  keep  an  eye  for  needs  and  remedy  the  difficulty. 
This  does  not  at  all  mean  that  pupils  may  not  leave  their 
places  ever  or  get  things  for  themselves.  It  does  mean 
that  usually  the  teacher  should  know  the  occasion  of  the 
moving  and  reduce  it  to  a  minimum  of  disturbance.  Going 
for  all  one  needs  with  no  demand  for  foresight — traveling 
to  the  wastebasket,  the  water-pail  or  faucet,  the  supply  case 
—  soon  produces  a  tendency  to  spend  one's  time  upon  the 
road  rather  than  in  work.  It  is  wasteful  as  well  as  disturb- 
ing, and  it  opens  avenues  for  trouble  in  many  ways. 

[285] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Usually  it  is  better  to  have  no  communication  or  leav- 
ing of  desks  except  for  well-understood  reasons  and  then 
nearly  always  after  receiving  permission  through  some  sig- 
nal. Some  experienced  teachers  allow  pupils  to  move 
around  without  permission,  but  the  young  teacher  is  safer 
if  she  knows  just  why  they  are  going.  Even  with  the  older 
it  often  results  in  much  aimless  wandering,  waste  of  time, 
and  confusion.  Many  things  that  may  be  permitted  in  a 
small  school  or  by  an  experienced  teacher  are  unsafe  to  be 
attempted  with  larger  schools  or  by  one  who  has  taught 
little.  It  is  better  to  be  rather  exacting  till  one's  judgment 
and  power  are  trained,  then  one  may  be  more  liberal. 

Industry,  obedience,  politeness,  signs  of  well-ordered 
school.  A  well-ordered  school  is  not  only  moderately 
quiet  and  reasonably  stationary,  but  it  is  busy.  It  works 
willingly  and  almost  constantly.  It  shows  a  desire  to 
achieve.  If  a  school  is  well  controlled,  its  members  are 
polite,  obedient,  cheerful.  No  teacher  may  feel  that  her 
school  is  under  perfect  control  when  the  children  are 
outwardly  rude  in  look  or  action,  or  disobedient  either 
directly  or  by  a  return  to  the  forbidden  as  soon  as  her 
glance  is  removed.  Disputes  as  to  what  he  was  told  to  do, 
how  far  the  lesson  was  assigned,  what  was  taken  yesterday, 
and  things  of  that  sort,  bear  the  stamp  of  rudeness  most 
decidedly — to  say  nothing  of  the  suggestion  of  indefinite- 
ness  in  the  teacher's  procedures. 

Understanding  by  teacher  of  what  constitutes  disorder 
absolutely  necessary  for  good  discipline.  Having  decided 
what  good  order  is — and  that  must  be  done  finally,  not  by 
what  has  been  said  here  but  by  thought,  observation,  and 
common  sense  —  the  next  thing  is  to  think  how  to  meet 

[286] 


DISCIPLINE 

the  difficulties ;  but  I  would  emphasize  here  that  to  know 
what  constitutes  a  well-ordered  school  is  a  prime  requisite 
for  a  teacher.  Many  times  I  have  been  assured  by  students 
who  have  had  some  experience  that  they  had  no  trouble 
in  discipline,  when  their  superintendents  have  reported 
them  as  exceedingly  weak.  They  evidently  had  not  the 
right  idea  of  what  to  demand,  being  satisfied  with  condi- 
tions far  short  of  the  best.  A  superintendent,  who  had 
been  driven  nearly  to  distraction  during  a  visit  to  one  of 
his  schools,  asked  the  teacher  if  it  did  not  make  her 
nervous  to  have  the  children  so  restless.  She  replied  that 
she  did  not  notice  it  in  the  slightest  degree.  Her  ideals 
were  not  high,  and  he  was  neglecting  his  duties  in  the 
direction  of  raising  them,  for  he  made  no  further  comment. 
Proper  organization  of  work  a  help  in  discipline.  If 
school  work  is  properly  and  carefully  arranged,  it  greatly 
simplifies  the  problem  of  discipline.  Such  organization 
calls  for  thought,  common  sense,  executive  ability,  and 
hard  work.  A  teacher  should  give  the  pupils  all  the  work 
they  can  do,  see  that  they  do  it,  and  endeavor  to  arouse 
a  wish  to  do  it.  Keeping  busy  is  one  of  the  great  secrets 
of  a  good  school.  A  teacher  can  arrange  for  the  distribu- 
tion and  collection  of  material,  see  that  the  books  and 
other  things  in  the  desks  are  kept  in  order — in  many  such 
ways  simplify  the  work  and  economize  on  time  and  con- 
fusion. Such  simple  things  as  planning  which  side  of  a 
seat  a  child  shall  get  out  of,  whether  a  class  shall  pass 
forward  or  toward  the  back  of  the  room,  or  whether  it 
shall  pass  at  all,  have  a  great  effect  on  the  general  appear- 
ance of  a  class  and  its  tendency  to  good  behavior.  If  some 
of  the  children  hold  objects  to  be  collected  on  the  right 

[287] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

side  of  the  desk  while  others  hold  them  on  the  left,  if  some 
fail  to  hold  them  at  all,  if  certain  books  are  left  behind 
upon  the  shelf,  — being  out  of  proper  place  ; — confusion  is 
caused  and  a  general  loss  of  respect  for  law  and  order. 

If  things  to  be  used  in  the  work  are  made  ready  before- 
hand, it  contributes  much  toward  easy  management.  If  a 
teacher  has  her  plans  for  the  day  carefully  thought  out, 
much  is  gained  in  general  lack  of  friction  and  of  need  to 
find  things  to  fill  in  gaps.  All  of  these  arrangements  de- 
crease the  restlessness  and  the  idle  times  which  serve  for 
mischief  and  for  producing  the  general  loss  of  a  feeling 
of  responsibility. 

The  personal  element  a  large  factor.  Since  the  way  the 
teacher  feels  must  determine  her  attitude  toward  things, 
it  becomes  her  duty  to  keep  herself  in  a  state  of  mind 
and  body  which  will  render  her  normal  toward  disturb- 
ing elements.  If  a  teacher  was  up  too  late  the  night 
before,  for  the  purpose  either  of  correcting  papers  or  of 
attending  a  whist  party,  she  cannot  look  at  things  rea- 
sonably. If  she  suffers  from  indigestion,  nerve  strain, 
headache,  she  cannot  meet  difficulties  cheerfully  and  so 
deprive  them  of  half  their  terrors.  I  have  known  a  pair 
of  new  shoes  to  render  a  person  an  unfit  judge  of  those 
around  her,  and  there  are  people  who  can  see  nothing  in 
the  world  worth  trying  for  if  they  happen  to  be  not  quite 
warm  enough  to  be  comfortable.  Little  things  these  are, 
but  many  a  teacher  has  had  a  hard  day  just  because  of 
some  small  physical  discomfort  that  started  her  off  wrongly 
in  the  morning.  It  is  almost  sure  to  be  the  case  that  when 
everything  goes  wrong  through  the  day  the  fault  is  the 
teacher's.    It  is  perfectly  possible,  usually,  for  anyone  to 

[288] 


DISCIPLINE 

regard  her  physical  condition  and  temper  it  to  her  needs. 
Incidentally  it  may  be  stated  that  when  the  teacher  knows 
that  the  children  have  been  overstrained  or  are  overexcited 
in  any  way  she  should  be  specially  careful  to  keep  well 
herself. 

Then,  many  teachers  will  freely  permit  liberties  to  some 
children,  while  unable  to  endure  the  slightest  infringement 
from  others.  We  are  so  constituted  that  some  people  seem 
to  get  on  our  nerves,  while  others  never  rub  us  the  wrong 
way.  Because  of  this,  we  are  often  unfair  and  hasty  in 
our  judgments  —  overlooking  when  we  should  take  note 
of  offenses  and  nagging,  frowning,  reproving,  when  we 
should  be  silent  or  smile  or  stimulate  This  state  of  affairs 
is  pretty  common  with  the  best  of  us,  though  it  may  not 
frequently  be  carried  to  an  extent  where  great  harm  is 
done. 

Tact  an  essential  element.  Tactless  teachers  often  pre- 
cipitate troubles.  It  is  safe  not  to  be  in  too  great  a  hurry. 
Difficulties  do  not  always  have  to  be  settled  on  the  instant, 
and  waiting  often  changes  the  tension  of  the  whole  situa- 
tion. This  does  not  mean  that  real  demands  for  prompt 
action  should  not  be  promptly  met.  They  should,  but  de- 
liberate action  is  often  better.  Remoteness  of  punishment 
may  sometimes  diminish  its  efficacy,  but  the  wise  teacher 
will  be  sure  the  child  makes  proper  connections  between 
the  punishment  and  the  offense  —  the  school  also,  if  it  is 
needed  by  the  school.  Troubles  should  be  avoided  when 
possible.  Many  a  teacher  has  difficulties  because  her  school 
has  been  running  so  smoothly  that  she  takes  a  sudden 
notion  that  she  must  have  been  lax.  Many  another  reads 
trouble  into  harmless  acts.    Others  quite  unintentionally 

[289] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

goad  on  to  destruction  a  child  who  was  headed  wrongly 
in  the  morning  and  who  needed  a  little  ignoring  or  a  little 
smoothing  down. 

Tact  means  sympathy  and  observation.  Some  people 
possess  it,  some  wholly  lack  it,  most  are  able  to  acquire 
it  to  a  degree.  A  teacher's  whole  personality  may  suggest 
it.  Each  child  may  be  made  to  feel  that  he  is  to  get  his 
due  of  kind  treatment.  The  best  way  to  get  tact,  perhaps, 
is  to  study  the  children,  observe  what  things  seem  to  ap- 
peal to  them,  to  what  motives  they  most  easily  yield,  what 
the  home  conditions  may  tend  to  produce.  Everything  a 
teacher  can  find  out  about  a  pupil  will  help  in  knowing 
how  to  handle  him.  Study  of  children  does  away  with  the 
idea  that  they  should  be  treated  alike.  They  are  not  alike, 
they  should  be  treated  accordingly.  They  should  be  made 
to  understand  that  they  will  be  used  fairly,  but  that  they  will 
not  all  get  the  same  thing  always.  It  is  possible  to  make 
children  comprehend  this  idea.  If  it  be  well  "  rubbed  in  " 
and  they  be  made  to  know  that  because  they  do  not  see 
penalties  and  rewards  administered  it  is  not  to  be  con- 
cluded that  they  are  not  given,  much  of  the  feeling  of  un- 
fairness that  exists  and  has  its  effect  upon  a  school  may 
be  done  away  with.  Learning  to  know  the  pupils,  keeping 
the  golden  rule,  and  maintaining  her  own  dignity  and  self- 
respect  —  all  will  help  a  teacher  to  tactfulness  and  power 
in  discipline. 

Popularity.  Keeping  these  things  in  mind,  a  teacher 
should  go  ahead  and  do  what  seems  to  her  to  be  right  and 
necessary,  regardless  of  whether  she  is  popular  with  chil- 
dren or  parents.  She  must  do  her  best  without  fear  ;  yet 
if  a  teacher  feels  her  whole  school  against  her,  she  should 

[  290  ] 


DISCIPLINE 

hesitate  to  advance  till  she  has  again  examined  her  ground 
and  made  sure  she  is  right  and  has  gone  about  matters 
tactfully.  If  she  does  her  very  best  and  thinks  no  more 
about  it,  the  popularity  will  probably  come. 

Love  and  respect.  Many  a  young  teacher  has  gone  mar- 
tyrlike to  her  doom  because  she  had  certain  theories  about 
teaching  and  felt  she  must  live  up  to  them.  One  of  the 
greatest  of  these  has  been  the  feeling  that  she  must  govern 
by  love  and  respect  only.  There  is  no  possible  reason  why 
these  feelings  should  not  form  a  chief  factor  in  the  problem 
of  discipline,  but  frequently  the  child  has  no  immediate  rea- 
son to  love  a  teacher,  and  the  only  reason  for  his  deeming 
her  worthy  of  respect  is  that  she  is  placed  in  a  position  of 
authority  over  him.  During  the  first  few  weeks,  or  some- 
times after  a  waiting  lull,  or  during  the  first  hours  of  the 
day  if  she  is  a  substitute,  the  pupil  ascertains  by  personal 
experiment  how  deserving  she  is  of  either.  Holding  her 
ground  during  this  time  by  whatever  means  she  finds  most 
effective,  she  may  firmly  establish  both  love  and  respect 
and  thereafter  govern  by  means  of  them.  The  many  little 
things  she  allows  or  prevents  will  do  more  to  decide  the 
question  than  will  a  few  big  ones.  Theories  are  all  right, 
but  they  should  be  laid  aside  when  necessary,  at  the  call 
of  common  sense,  and  modified  when  occasion  demands. 

Not  knowing  what  to  do.  The  teacher  who  sees  the 
mischief  but  does  not  know  what  to  do,  should  remember 
that  it  is  not  the  thing  that  constitutes  the  penalty  but  the 
certainty  of  there  being  a  penalty  that  makes  for  good  be- 
havior. It  often  makes  little  difference  what  the  teacher 
does,  so  long  as  she  does  something.  One  failure  to  recog- 
nize disobedience  and  deal  with  it  will  bring  future  trouble. 

[  291  ] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Discipline  should  be  quiet.  Discipline  should  be  as 
quiet  as  may  be.  Offenses  should  not  be  overlooked,  but 
they  should  be  prevented  when  possible.  It  is  often  easy 
to  see  that  something  is  afoot  that  will  make  trouble  in  a 
minute  or  two.  A  word,  a  look,  or  some  quiet  means  may 
nip  the  trouble  in  the  bud.  Means  and  occasions  for 
offenses  should  be  removed  whenever  possible.  When 
offenses  occur  they  should  be  dealt  with  without  uproar. 
There  is  too  much  talking  about  behavior.  Scolding  is 
valueless  usually,  though  once  in  a  great  while  —  when 
one  is  not  intending  to  do  much  besides  —  the  punish- 
ment may  be  given  with  the  tongue.  One  usually  says  too 
much ;  a  few  vigorous  words  or  a  few  of  quiet  contempt 
will  go  further  than  much  wrath.  Constant  nagging  would 
drive  anyone  to  desperation  ;  telling  once  should  be  enough 
and  generally  will  be  if  the  teacher  watches  to  see  that  all 
suggestions  are  obeyed.  General  calls  for  order  are  of 
little  good.  To  wait  a  minute — a  minute  with  eyes  closed 
is  interminably  long  —  is  better.  It  is  a  mistake  to  let 
one's  discipline  always  show  how  the  wheels  go  round. 
That  school  is  best  disciplined  in  which  things  go  right, 
but  no  one  seems  to  be  thinking  about  discipline. 

There  is  usually  someone  who  is  making  the  trouble. 
The  teacher  should  find  the  ringleaders  and  deal  with 
them,  nearly  always  quietly,  as  far  as  possible  privately. 
To  go  and  speak  to  a  child  is  far  better  than  to  call  to 
him,  for  many  reasons  —  among  which  are  the  tendency  of 
children  to  imitation  and  the  fact  that  no  one  knows  what 
the  teacher  says  to  the  child.  The  idea  should  be  culti- 
vated with  each  pupil  that  he  is  responsible  for  himself 
and  need  not  concern  himself  with  the  others  except  to 

[292] 


DISCIPLINE 

set  them  a  good  example  and  to  do  nothing  to  disturb 
them.  This  last  idea  may  be  so  well  developed  that  little 
need  for  discipline  will  arise.  Often  the  teacher,  by  call- 
ing attention  to  an  offense,  opens  an  avenue  of  offense 
to  the  other  pupils.  This  is  equally  true  when  the  disci- 
pline largely  takes  the  tone  of  forbidding  to  do  things. 
Children  are  very  imitative,  very  open  to  unconscious 
suggestion.     It  is  better  to  tell  what  to  do. 

Pupil  government.  Many  teachers  use  successfully  the 
idea  of  pupil  government.  This  cannot  be  worked  well 
with  younger  children.  In  using  it  with  older  ones,  the 
teacher  should  remember  that  she  is  still  at  the  head  of 
the  government.  The  responsibility  of  school  control  must 
always  lie  with  the  teacher,  but  she  may  be  able  to  do  it 
best  by  influencing  the  children  to  control  themselves.  It 
is  a  matter  for  careful  handling.  The  Brownlee  "  System 
of  Child  Training"  gives  some  good  suggestions  in  this  line. 

Motives  for  misbehavior  should  be  found.  The  reasons 
for  disorder  should  be  sought.  To  control  a  school  well, 
it  is  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  discover  the  child's 
motives.  Much  apparent  heedlessness  and  disorder  arise 
from  defects  of  sight  and  hearing  or  other  physical 
troubles.  One  would  always  be  more  sympathetic  if  she 
knew  these  to  be  the  cause.  An  uncomfortable  child  is 
hardly  ever  good.  Again,  much  disorder  is  caused  merely 
by  ignorance  of  good  manners.  Teachers  need  to  be  par- 
ticular in  corridor  and  yard  to  keep  the  pupils  mannerly 
and  free  from  the  boisterous  rudeness  that  comes  without 
intent  but  that  frequently  spills  over  into  the  schoolroom 
and  at  any  rate  may  make  the  child  a  nuisance  in  general 
company.    A  great  deal  of  trouble  arises  from  an  overflow 

[293] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

of  animal  spirits.  Sympathy  and  giving  more  work  to  do 
will  meet  this.  Often  the  seating  arrangements  are  bad, 
and  breaking-up  of  the  "  ring"  will  straighten  the  trouble 
immediately.  Much  open  disorder  comes  from  the  child's 
getting  so  absorbed  in  what  he  is  bent  upon  that  he 
becomes  unconscious  of  the  teacher's  presence,  a  case  of 
maximum  attention  which  produces  apparently  open  and 
reckless  misbehavior. 

A  pupil's  wrongdoing  sometimes  comes  from  obsti- 
nacy. For  one  to  be  born  obstinate  is  very  unfortunate. 
Frequently  the  child  is  as  unhappy  as  he  is  making  others. 
He  would  stop  balking  if  he  were  able.  He  should  be 
managed  by  kindness,  by  overlooking  many  occasions  for 
friction.  If  trouble  comes,  one  should  handle  him  as  one 
would  a  balky  horse — divert  his  attention,  ignore  him,  give 
him  a  choice  of  things  to  do,  gently  push  him  along, 
sometimes  treat  him  to  a  surprise.  Collisions  with  an 
obstinate,  sulky  child  should  always  be  avoided.  Usually 
the  teacher's  self-respect  is  not  suffering  as  much  as  she 
thinks.  If  the  collision  has  to  come,  as  come  sometimes 
it  must,  the  teacher  should  be  sure  to  come  off  victor. 

One  should  not  be  too  prone  to  discover  signs  of 
offense.  Often  what  seems  like  rudeness  is  bashfulness, 
self-consciousness,  embarrassment.  Yet  it  is  well  to  remem- 
ber that  looks  and  acts  can  express  rudeness  as  well  as 
can  words,  and  many  a  child  is  allowed  a  veiled  insolence 
for  weeks,  which  must  needs  produce  a  bad  effect  upon 
him  and  the  school.  The  teacher  should  demand  polite- 
ness always  and,  on  the  other  hand,  should  herself  never 
fail  of  courtesy  even  in  the  most  trying  moments.  Many 
little  offenses  are  often  worse  than  one  large  one,  being 

[  294  ] 


DISCIPLINE 

fully  as  bad  in  intention  and  much  less  easy  to  handle. 
An  occasional  child  seems  to  plan  to  keep  just  inside  the 
border  line  and  never  seems  to  do  the  one  thing  which 
would  deserve  marked  attention.  He  should  be  jerked 
one  way  or  the  other  with  decision,  should  hear  the  list 
of  his  offenses  in  a  bunch  and  either  reform  or  receive 
his  deserts.  On  the  other  hand,  a  teacher  sometimes 
seems  to  be  obsessed  over  the  small  misdemeanors  of 
some  particular  child.  It  would  be  well  to  seat  him  be- 
hind her  for  a  while,  where  she  need  not  see  him  con- 
stantly, or  else  behind  the  school  so  she  may  disregard 
him  without  their  knowing  it. 

Mode  of  administering  punishment.  Punishment  should 
be  given  in  a  way  to  preserve  the  pupil's  self-respect, 
except  in  a  few  cases  where  a  sense  of  humiliation  is 
desirable.  The  teacher's  self-respect  should  be  maintained 
also,  and  many  degrading  punishments  are  to  be  avoided 
for  their  effect  upon  the  teacher  more  than  upon  the 
child.  Punishment  in  wrath  must  needs  lower  the  teacher's 
feeling  of  respect  for  her  own  efficiency.  Punishments 
should  be  given  impersonally  and  sympathetically,  regret- 
fully as  to  the  need  but  without  maudlin  display  of  sen- 
timent. They  should  be  administered  in  such  a  way  as 
to  prevent  a  recurrence  of  the  offense,  but  to  prevent  it 
largely  through  raised  ideals. 

Kinds  of  punishments.  It  is  difficult  to  state  what 
particular  punishments  should  be  employed.  Those  that 
might  injure  a  child  physically  should  never  be  practiced. 
Slapping  of  faces,  boxing  of  ears,  shutting  in  dark  closets, 
oversevere  shakings  or  whippings,  all  such  things,  a 
teacher  should  scorn  to  use. 

[295] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

Isolation  is  often  very  effective.  It  gives  a  child  time 
to  cool  off,  to  get  another  point  of  view.  Much  trouble 
comes  from  nervousness,  and  the  stimulus  of  an  audi- 
ence being  removed,  the  child  is  calmed  and  quieted.  The 
school  has  a  chance  to  recover  its  equilibrium,  as  does  also 
the  teacher.  Isolation  should  not  usually  be  accompanied 
by  disgrace  and  should  not  be  too  long  continued. 

Putting  on  honor  will  work  with  some  pupils  when  all 
other  means  fail.  Sending  home  is  sometimes  effective, 
but  often  produces  an  unpleasant  state  of  feeling.  If  the 
parent  can  be  made  to  understand  the  exact  condition  of 
affairs  by  means  of  a  private  note,  it  sometimes  works 
well.  Punishing  like  with  like  is  a  good  way.  Having  the 
child  do  till  tired  what  he  did  for  fun,  in  the  hands  of  some 
teachers,  makes  an  almost  ideal  form  of  punishment. 

Whipping  may  be  done  when  the  teacher  is  assured 
that  it  is  what  the  child  needs.  It  should  be  used  not 
because  it  is  the  easiest  way  but  because  it  seems  the 
best  thing.  It  is  so  easy  a  mode  of  punishment  that  there 
is  danger  that  it  will  too  often  seem  the  best,  so  one  needs 
to  be  careful  about  employing  it.  If  the  teacher  is  assured 
that  it  is  the  best  thing,  it  should  be  done  with  dignity 
and  dispatch.  It  should  nearly  always  be  performed  in 
private,  as  should  most  punishments.  Once  in  a  great 
while  it  is  well  for  a  school  to  see  what  goes  on,  as  a 
lesson,  but  the  effect  of  such  things  upon  nervous  chil- 
dren is  bad,  and  it  is  not  desirable  to  satisfy  too  closely 
the  inquisitiveness  of  others. 

Right  motives  should  be  appealed  to.  Many  too  com- 
monly used  punishments  appeal  only  to  the  child's  fear 
or  to  his  sense   of   shame.     Fear  is  the  lowest  of  all 

[296] 


DISCIPLINE 

motives,  and  shame,  unless  carefully  handled,  may  be 
little  higher.  It  is  far  better  that  a  pupil  do  right  through 
ambition,  through  love,  admiration,  or  respect  for  the 
teacher,  or  through  a  large  desire  to  do  right  than  through 
poorer  motives. 

Rational  obedience  is  by  far  the  best.  A  child  should 
know  why  he  is  expected  to  do  certain  things,  why  he  is 
punished  or  praised.  It  is  not  always  well  to  defer  obedi- 
ence for  explanations  however.  Explanations  may  accom- 
pany directions  or  may  come  afterwards  or  sometimes  do 
not  need  to  be  given  at  all.  Confidence  in  his  teacher 
should  be  one  of  the  greatest  reasons  for  the  obedience  of 
a  pupil.  Rational  obedience  as  far  as  possible,  but  obedi- 
ence anyway  ;  obedience  through  the  highest  motives  pos- 
sible, but  obedience  through  a  low  motive  if  necessary 
while  a  higher  is  being  established ;  obedience  at  any  rate 
—  this  should  be  the  teacher's  creed,  otherwise  she  may 
do  serious  injury  to  the  child.  Uplifting  the  tone  of  the 
school  by  talks  and  making  the  pupils  feel  that  good  order 
of  the  school  is  necessary  for  them,  that  it  lies  within 
their  power  and  should  be  accomplished  by  them,  that 
they  are  responsible  for  it,  will  go  far  to  produce  a  proper 
attitude.  It  should  be  "  we  "  and  not  "  I  "  or  "  you  "  in 
connection  with  all  school  affairs. 

The  aim  of  discipline.  The  aim  of  all  punishment  and 
discipline  should  be  self-control,  power  for  self-governing, 
development  of  character ;  consequently  the  means  employed 
must  be  as  many  as  there  are  children,  as  changing  as  the 
needs  of  the  school. 

The  teacher  should  remember  that  because  school  gov- 
ernment aims   at   high   things   all   superintendents   and 

[297] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

committees  want  a  well-governed  school.  She  should  re- 
member also  that  it  is  the  spirit  and  not  the  body  that 
governs,  so  she  should  increase  her  own  self-confidence. 
She  should  expect  to  be  obeyed.  She  should  grow  able  to 
manage  her  school  for  herself.  She  may  indeed  call  upon 
superintendent  and  principal  when  their  help  is  necessary, 
she  may  better  call  upon  them  than  have  her  school  run 
wild,  but  she  should  feel  ever  unsatisfied  till  she  herself 
is  able  to  govern  her  school. 

Influence  of  teacher's  character.  The  teacher's  char- 
acter is  the  greatest  moving  power.  What  she  is  and  the 
spirit  she  establishes  will  govern  or  misgovern  her  pupils. 
If  she  cannot  control  herself,  she  will  not  control  the  chil- 
dren. If  public  opinion  condemns  her,  if  —  as  has  been 
suggested  before  —  she  is  known  and  discussed  by  all  the 
street-comer  loafers,  if  she  is  not  a  quiet  or  an  active 
power  for  good,  she  cannot  make  of  her  school  what  she 
otherwise  would. 

Good  discipline  cannot  end  with  the  schoolroom  door. 
The  teacher's  influence  must  go  with  the  child  and  uplift 
and  support  him  as  will  that  of  a  worthy  mother.  The 
teacher's  example  and  precept  must  work  quietly  and 
steadily  through  all  a  child's  waking  hours,  whether  spent 
in  work  or  play,  whether  in  school  or  home  or  elsewhere. 

REFERENCES 

Brownlee.  Character  Bviilding  in  Schools.  Houghton  Mifflin  Com- 
pany. 

Brownlee.    System  of  Child  Training.    Holden  Company. 

Moral  Training  in  the  Public  Schools  (a  group  of  essays).  Ginn  and 
Company. 

ScoTT.    Social  Education.    Ginn  and  Company. 

[298] 


I 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
CONCLUSION 

Going  away.  When  the  time  comes  for  the  term  to 
end  and  for  the  teacher  to  depart,  she  should  not  hurry  in 
the  doing  so.  It  may  be  true  that  she  is  homesick,  having 
been  away  from  home  perhaps  for  the  first  long  absence. 
Her  surroundings  may  not  have  been  very  congenial,  she 
is  undoubtedly  tired,  and  she  has  probably  done  all  she 
will  be  paid  for ;  yet  in  spite  of  all  these  facts,  it  is  better 
to  put  things  to  rights  without  undue  haste.  It  is  not  well 
for  a  teacher  to  close  a  term  at  three  o'clock  and  take  a 
four  o'clock  train,  or,  as  sometimes  happens,  to  supposedly 
close  at  four  and  take  a  three  o'clock  train.  School  should 
be  ended  with  due  decorum,  with  no  signs  of  haste  or 
neglect.  Children  are  too  easily  taught  the  idea  that  the 
last  of  the  term  amounts  to  nothing. 

The  register  should  be  carefully  made  out,  and  such 
additional  information  as  one  would  have  been  glad  of 
herself  should  be  left  for  the  next  teacher.  The  books 
and  all  other  apparatus  should  be  put  in  order,  the  boards 
cleaned,  the  flowers  and  other  litter  thrown  away  —  in 
short,  there  should  be  left  behind  a  place  that  has  been 
swept  and  put  in  absolute  order.  As  the  teacher  has  tried 
to  make  the  school  a  home,  so  let  her  leave  it  as  she 
would  leave  her  own  home  when  going  away  for  a  visit. 
Let  her  extend  the  idea  to  her  boarding  place  and  leave 

[299] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 

her  room  in  good  condition.  Then  when  everything  is 
right  she  may  go  away  with  a  Hght  heart,  a  consciousness 
of  duty  done,  a  wholesome  regret  for  whatsoever  mistakes 
she  may  have  made,  and  a  new  hope  and  determination 
for  the  future. 

Coming  back.  Let  us  hope  that  in  many  cases  this 
future  may  return  her  to  the  same  school,  to  be  heartily 
greeted  in  the  neighborhood,  to  rejoice  over  the  orderly 
schoolroom,  to  be  put  in  mind  of  forgotten  things  by  her 
own  register  and  other  records,  to  enlarge  the  resources  of 
the  school  equipment,  and  to  carry  on  all  those  good  plans 
which  she  was  wise  enough  to  start,  regardless  of  whether 
the  next  teacher  would  continue  them.  Even  to  a  rural 
school,  perhaps  above  all  to  a  rural  school,  it  is  well  that 
there  should  be  several  of  these  returns.  Teaching  in  the 
country  is  not  without  great  advantages,  since  going  to 
school  is  the  business  of  the  children  and  they  are  often 
without  the  great  social  distractions  of  a  village  or  city. 
Nature  presents  her  most  attractive  side.  True,  the  salary 
is  smaller,  but  the  temptations  to  spend  are  fewer.  The 
teacher  may  occupy  a  far  more  important  place  than  in  a 
larger  community,  and  the  opportunities  for  doing  good 
are  great. 

What  the  book  has  tried  to  teach.  Lest  it  seem  to  the 
teacher  that  too  much  has  been  required  of  her  in  the 
foregoing  chapters,  it  may  be  wise  to  take  a  backward 
glance  and  do  a  little  summing-up.  She  has  been  asked  to 
give  less  work  in  arithmetic  and  to  make  it  appeal  to  the 
senses  and  to  reasoning;  to  make  the  language  work 
include  abundant  expression  of  thought  with  correction  of 
its  expression  and  a  contribution  to  material  for  thought 

[300] 


CONCLUSION 

by  means  of  poems,  stories,  and  pictures ;  to  make  the 
reading  intelligent  and  about  something  worth  while ;  to 
make  of  geography  and  history  thought-subjects  rather 
than  mere  verbatim  recitations ;  to  open  the  eyes  of  the 
children  to  the  beauties  of  nature  and  their  ears  to  har- 
mony of  sound ;  to  employ  drawing  as  a  handmaid  to 
other  work ;  to  train  somewhat  the  pupil  who  is  skillful 
with  his  hands  and  to  start  another  who  is  not  skillful 
upon  the  road  to  skill ;  to  make  the  child  physically  com- 
fortable, mentally  efficient,  and  morally  strong ;  to  con- 
sider the  need  of  tools  as  great  in  the  training  of  children 
as  in  the  manufacture  of  shoes,  bicycles,  or  horserakes ;  to 
make  the  schoolroom  as  pleasant  as  the  ordinary  home ; 
to  make  her  behavior  that  of  the  modest,  virtuous  woman 
who  is  above  reproach. 

It  all  calls  for  work,  thought,  and  self-denial.  What 
business  ever  failed  to  need  these  ?  She  who  expects  to 
teach  without  them,  who  has  chosen  teaching  as  an  easy 
occupation,  may  well  be  discouraged  and  retreat  as  early 
as  possible.  She  who  is  willing  to  give  of  herself  largely 
may  find  their  accomplishment  far  easier  than  she  thinks 
and  her  rewards  greater  than  can  be  known  by  any  other 
than  herself. 


[301] 


INDEX 


(References  given  at  the  end  of  the  chapters  are  not  repeated  in  the  index, 
neither  are  the  Usts  of  poems  and  stories  given  in  Chapters  XV  and  XVI.) 


Accidents,  79-81 

Addition  and  subtraction  by  end- 
ings, 99,  100 

Adenoids,  76,  77 

Animal  study,  206-211 

Apparatus  (Chapter  IV) :  need  of 
tools,  25;  economy  of,  25,  26; 
care  of  books,  26,  27  ;  distribu- 
tion, 27,  28 ;  tools  should  be 
ready,  28  ;  acquisition  of  books, 
29 ;  books  the  most  valuable 
tool,  30;  homemade  books,  30; 
pictures  the  next  tool,  31-33; 
the  school  collection,  33  ;  use 
of  pictures,  33,  34  ;  school  cabi- 
net, 34,  35;  loans,  35,  36;  effect 
of  use  in  class,  36 ;  the  black- 
board, 36,  37  ;  maps  and  charts, 
37 ;  drill  cards,  37,  38 ;  other 
apparatus,  38-42 ;  educational 
papers,  42  ;  books  for  teachers' 
use  or  for  children's  library,  43 ; 
the  picture  as,  152 

Aquarium,  210 

Arithmetic  (Chapter  IX) :  impor- 
tance, 95,  96;  character  of  first 
grade,  96,  97 ;  later  primary 
number  work,  97  ;  playing  store, 
loi ;  work  above  fifth  year,  loi- 
103 ;  use  of  class  time,  103  ;  need 
of  independent  work,  103;  need 
of  good  judgment  on  part  of 
teacher,  104  ;  a  few  good  drills, 
104-107  ;  a  few  ways  to  help  to 
easier  work,  107-110 

Assignment  of  lessons,  268 

Attendance,  66;  use  of  seating 
plan  for,  39,  45,  46 


Attention,  a  characteristic  of  a 
good  recitation,  271,  272;  rea- 
sons for  loss  of,  272,  273 

Austin,  Mary,  study  of  poem  of, 
159-162 

Bancroft, "  School  Freehand  Gym- 
nastics," 84 ;  "  Games  for  Play- 
ground, Home,  School,  and 
Gymnasium,"  279 

Basketry,  250,  251 

Bird  study,  210,  211 

Blackboard,  17  ;  decoration  of,  21, 
22  ;  cleaning  of,  23,  24 ;  as  a  tool, 
36,  37  ;  Whitney,  "  Blackboard 
Sketching,"  219 

Bookcase,  16,  17 

Books,  7-9 ;  care  of,  26,  27  ;  acqui- 
sition of,  29,  194,  195;  the  most 
valuable  tool,  30 ;  homemade, 
30 ;  covers  for,  40 ;  for  teachers' 
use  or  for  children's  library,  43 

Boston  guard  penholder,  225 

Brass,  work  in,  253 

Breathing  exercises,  85 

Brushes,  40 

Bryant,  "  How  to  Tell  Stories  to 
Children,"  167;  "Stories  to  Tell 
to  Children,"  167 

Building  and  Grounds,  School 
(Chapter  III):  cleanliness,  15; 
orderliness,  22-24;  outbuildings, 
24 ;  schoolyard,  24 

Cabinet,  16,  17,  33-35 
Cane,  251 

Cardboard  construction,  papers 
for,  38,  245,  246 


[303] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 


"  Cardboard  Construction"  (Rich), 

245 
Cards,  for  drill,  37,  38 ;  report,  65 ; 

for  reading,  115 
Chairs  and  desks,  70 
Chart,  reading,  114,  115 
Children's  Hour  (Tappan),  167 
Clay,  39 

Cleanliness,  15,  16 
Cold-air  schools,  68 
Combinations,  to  twenty,  98,  99; 

of  classes  for  spelling,  140 
Community,  teacher's  position  in, 

4,  5 
Conclusion  (Chapter  XXIX) 
Contagious  diseases,  81,  82 
Correction,  in  reading,  124,  125; 

of  pupils'  English,  144,  145 
Covers,  for  books,  40 
Crayons,  38,  39,  218,  223 
Current  Events,  90 
Curtain,  22 

Decimal  square,  106 

Decoration,  17-21 

Desk  Work  (Chapter  XXIII): 
material  for,  1 2 ;  need  of,  234, 
23s ;  teacher  should  see  purpose 
of,  235;  variety  necessary,  235, 
236 ;  need  of  explanation,  236  ; 
how  regarded  by  child,  236,  237 ; 
decision  as  to  kind,  237  ;  should 
be  attractive  and  hygienic,  237, 
238 ;  use  with  older  grades,  238 ; 
sources  of  material,  238 ;  care 
of  material,  239;  distribution  of, 
239 ;  list  of  kinds,  240-242 

Desks,  70 

Development  paper,  38 

Development  work  in  a  recitation, 
266,  267 

Dictionary  Study  (Chapter  XI) : 
need  of  power,  1 28 ;  prepara- 
tion for  formal  study,  128  ;  class 
practice  in  looking  up  words, 
128,129;  determining  pronunci- 
ation, 1 29 ;  knowledge  of  parts  of 
speech,  129, 130 ;  testing  knowl- 
edge of  meaning,  130;  need  of 
individual  dictionaries,  131 


Discipline  (Chapter  XXVIII)  : 
reasons  for  need  of,  282 ;  reasons 
why  difficult,  283,  284;  what  con- 
stitutes good  order,  284;  noise 
a  condition  of  disorder,  284, 
285 ;  movement  favorable  to 
disorder,  285,  286 ;  industry, 
obedience,  politeness,  signs  of  a 
well-ordered  school,  286;  under- 
standing by  teacher  of  what 
constitutes  disorder  necessary 
for  good,  286,  287  ;  proper  or- 
ganization a  help,  287,  288 ;  per- 
sonal element  a  large  factor, 
288,  289 ;  tact  an  essential  ele- 
ment, 289,  290  ;  popularity,  290, 
291  ;  love  and  respect,  291 ; 
not  knowing  what  to  do,  291  ; 
should  be  quiet,  292,  293 ;  pupil 
government,  293 ;  motives  for 
misbehavior  should  be  found, 
293-295;  mode  of  administer- 
ing punishment,  295 ;  kinds  of 
punishments,  295,  296;  right 
motives  should  be  appealed  to, 
296,  297  ;  the  aim  of,  297,  298 ; 
influence  of  teacher's  character, 
298 
Discussion,  in  reading,  122,  123; 
in  history,  195  ;  an  aid  in  devel- 
opment, 266,  267 
Disorder,  284-287,  293,  294 
Distribution,  of  apparatus,  27,  28, 

239;  of  questions,  270,  271 
Dolls'  house,  253,  254 
Dramatizing,  169,  170,  192 
Drawing  (Chapter  XX) :  as  a  means 
of  expression,  147 ;  use  of  pic- 
ture in,  152  ;  in  connection  with 
nature  study,  212;    neglect  of 
subject,  215;  interest,  the  first 
step,  215,  216;  sources  of  sub- 
jects, 216,  217;  material,  217- 
2 1 9 ;  the  lesson,  2 1 9,  2  20 ;  should 
train  to  artistic  power,  220,  221 
Drill  cards,  37,  115 
Drills,  in  arithmetic,  104-107  ;  for 
sight  words,  115,  116;   in  lan- 
■guage,  145-147;  by  desk  work, 
240-242 


[304] 


INDEX 


Drinking  cup,  77,  78 

Easy  Dye,  40 

Economy,  of  material,  25,  26;  of 
time,  27,  28,  50-52,  57,  59 

"  Education  by  Plays  and  Games  " 
(Johnson),  279 

Educational  papers,  42 

"  Elementary  Sloyd  and  Whit- 
tling" (Larsson),  252 

"  Elements  of  the  Theory  and 
Practice  of  Cookery  "  (Williams 
and  Fisher),  255 

Emergency,  helps  for,  13 

English,  ways  of  improving,  142 ; 
the  teacher's,  142,  143;  correc- 
tion of  pupils',  144,  145 

Entertainments,  260-263 

Equipment,  Teacher's  (Chapter 
II):   why  needed,  7;   box  for, 

7-13 
Ethical  training,  90-94 
Executive  ability,  use  and  value 

of,  57 
Experiment,  212 
Eyesight,  71-74 

First  day,  44-48 
Flies,  69 
Flowers,  20,  24 
Fumigation,  81,  82 
Furniture,  16,  17 

Games,  language,  146,  147  ;  kinds 
of,  278-280 ;  "  Games  for  Play- 
ground, Home,  School,  and 
Gymnasium"  (Bancroft),  279 

Geography  (Chapter  XVII) :  im- 
portance of  subject,  178,  179; 
preliminary  work,  179;  early 
work,  oral,  179,  180;  map  mak- 
ing and  reading,  180;  study  of 
surface  features,  180, 181 ;  order 
of  procedure,  181 ;  climatic  con- 
ditions, 181,  182;  relation  to 
man,  182-184;  with  a  book,  185; 
location  of  places,  185,  186; 
aids,  186,  187  ;  use  of  different 
books,  187  ;  emphasis  of  causal 
idea,   187 ;   reviews  with   older 


classes,  187-189;  teacher  and 
books  as  sources  of  aid,  189 ; 
correlation  with  history,  195, 
196 

Globe,  39 

Grammar,  work  leading  to  techni- 
cal, 148,  149;  technical,  149, 150 

Grounds,  School  Building  and.  See 
Building  and  Grounds,  School 

"  Gymnastic  Stories  and  Plays " 
(Stoneroad),  84 

Habits,  smoking  and  other  bad, 

83 

Handwork,  244-257 

Hapgood,  "  School  Needlework," 
246 

Health,  67-86 

Hearing,  74-76 

Hectograph,  41,  42 

History  (Chapter  XVIII) :  intro- 
ductory, 191  ;  story-telling  a 
foundation  for,  191 ;  reading, 
191,  192;  regular  study,  192, 
193 ;  what  to  emphasize,  193 ; 
local,  193,  194;  verbatim  recita- 
tion, 194;  topical  study  from 
more  than  one  book,  194 ;  how 
to  get  books,  194,  195;  discus- 
sion in  class,  195 ;  maps  and 
correlation  with  geography,  195, 
196;  pictures,  poems,  and  sto- 
ries, 196,  197  ;  reviews,  197  ; 
training  gained  through,  197 ; 
preparation  of  teacher,  197,  198 

"Home  and  School  Sewing"  (Pat- 
ton),  246 

Home  work,  62 

"  How  to  Make  Baskets  "  (White), 
250 

"  How  to  Tell  Stories  to  Children  " 
(Bryant),  167 

Hygiene,  instruction  in,  82,  83 ; 
work  should  be  hygienic,  237, 
238 

Hymns,  89 

"  Illustrated  Phonics  "  (Ives),  85 
Illustration,   articles   for,    11,    12; 
study  of  poem  for,  160-162 


[305] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 


Industrial  Work  (Chapter  XXIV) : 
material  for,  12,  13  ;  justification 
of,  244,  245 ;  paper  and  card- 
board work,  245,  246;  sewing, 
246-248;  weaving,  248,  249; 
raffia,  249 ;  knotting,  249,  250 ; 
basketry,  250,  251 ;  caning,  251, 
252  ;  whittling,  252  ;  stenciling, 
252;  modeling,  253;  leather, 
iron,  brass,  and  other  kinds  of 
work,  253;  the  dolls'  house,  253, 
254;  in  connection  with  special 
subjects,  254,  255  ;  cooking  and 
household  economics,  255;  gar- 
dening, 255  ;  time  of  doing,  255, 
256;  conduct  of  class,  256;  ma- 
terial, 256;  making  a  start,  257 

Interest,  arousing,  58 

Interruptions  during  reading,  124 

Iron,  work  in,  253 

Itch,  78,  79 

Ives,  "Illustrated  Phonics,"  85 

Jackman,  "  Nature  Study  for  Com- 
mon Schools,"  212 

Jellitac,  40 

Johnson,  "  Education  by  Plays  and 
Games,"  279 

Keeping  in  at  recess,  62 

Lamp,  39 

Language  (Chapter  XIII) :  early 
work,  oral  and  incidental,  142; 
ways  of  improving  English,  142 ; 
the  teacher's  English,  142,  143; 
presentation  of  good  models, 
143;  free  expression  by  pupils, 
143,  144;  correction  of  pupils' 
English,  144,  145;  arousing  in- 
terest and  watchfulness,  145; 
exercises  to  secure  correctness, 
145,  146;  various  forms  of  ex- 
pression, 147;  written  work  with 
lower  grades,  147 ;  work  with 
older  children,  147,  148;  work 
leading  to  technical  grammar, 

148,  149;    technical    grammar, 

149,  150;   use   of   pictures   in, 
152.  153 


Larsson,  "  Elementary  Sloyd  and 

Whittling,"  252 
Leather,  41  ;  work  in,  253 
Leaving  places,  61 
Lentils,  97,  99 
Library,  29,  43 
Lice,  78,  79 
Loans,  35,  36 
Local  history,  193,  194 
Looms,  Bartlett,  40,  249 ;  A  B  C, 

40 

Maps  and  charts,  37  ;  making  and 
reading  in  geography,  180;  in 
history,  195 

Material,  mending,  40 ;  for  read- 
ing, 126,  127  ;  for  drawing,  217- 
219;  care  and  distribution  of 
desk  work,  239 ;  for  industrial 
work,  256;  preparation  of,  for 
entertainments,  261,  262 

Mats  for  weaving,  39,  248,  249 

Mending  material,  40 

Mineral  study,  205,  206 

Miscellaneous  articles  for  teacher's 
box,  13 

Modeling,  253  ;  clay  for,  39;  plas- 
ticine for,  39 

"  More  Baskets  and  How  to  Make 
Them"  (White),  250 

Morning  Exercises  (Chapter 
VIII):  Scripture,  88, 89;  hymns, 
89;  devotional  poems,  89;  other 
features,  89,  90  ;  current  events, 
90;  ethical  training,  90;  indirect 
instruction,  91  ;  careful  super- 
vision, 91  ;  direct  instruction, 
91-94 

Mounting,  of  pictures,  31 ;  board 
for,  38 

Multiplication  tables,  99 

Music  (Chapter  XXII) :  ways  and 
means,  228 ;  need  of  stimulus, 
229 ;  character  of  work,  229, 
230;  perfection  not  to  be  ex- 
pected too  early,  230;  all  should 
sing,  230,  231  ;  treatment  in 
rural  schools,  231  ;  tactics  of 
recitation,  231 ;  training  in  ap- 
preciation, 232,  233 


[306] 


INDEX 


Nature  Study  (Chapter  XIX) :  in- 
troductory, 199;  what  to  include, 
199,  200;  plant  life,  200;  fall 
work  with  plants,  200-202 ;  seed 
dissemination,  202;  plant  study 
in  winter,  203;  plant  study  in 
spring,  203-205  ;  mineral  study, 
205,206;  animal  study,  206;  mode 
of  working,  206,  207 ;  smaller 
forms  of  animal  life,  207,  208 ; 
continued  schoolroom  observa- 
tion, 208,  209 ;  the  aquarium, 
210;  "Nature  Study"  (Hodge), 
210;  bird  study,  210,  211  ;  nat- 
ural phenomena,  211  ;  time  and 
place  of  lessons,  211,  212;  ex- 
periments, 212  ;  aids,  212  ;  gen- 
eral, 212;  "Nature  Study  for 
Common  Schools  "  (Jackman), 
212 

Noon  rest  time,  279,  280 

Nosebleed,  80 

Oak  tag,  38 

Obedience,  296,  297 

Object  and  action  work  in  teach- 
ing reading,  112,  113 

"Object  Lessons"  (Ricks),  181    — 

Opening  exercises,  for  first  day, 
46,  47  ;  general,  88-90 

Orderliness,  22-24 

Organizing  for  permanent  im- 
provement, 16 

"  Our  World  Reader,"  179 

Outbuildings,  24 

Overwork,  83,  84 

Paints,  39 

Paper  and  cardboard  work,  245, 
246 

Papers,  sources  of,  38 ;  educa- 
tional, 42 

Parent-teacher  associations,  66 

Paste,  40 

Patches,  gummed  cloth,  40 

Patterns,  Jenny  Wren,  247 

Pegs,  39 

Pencils,  39 ;  Dixon's  Eterno,  42  ; 
individual,  78;  in  drawing,  217, 
218 ;  for  writing,  223 


Penholders,  39,  225 

Pens,  rubber  marking,  40;  auto- 
matic shading,  40 

Phonetic  drills,  118,  119 

Phonic,  or  phonetic,  method  in 
reading,  11 6-1 19 

Physical  Comfort  of  the  Child 
(Chapter  VII)  :  teacher  respon- 
sible, 67  ;  room  should  be  com- 
fortable, 67  ;  flies,  69  ;  desks  and 
chairs,  70,  71;  physical  defects, 
71;  tests  of  eyesight,  71-74; 
hearing,  74-76;  adenoids,  76, 
77 ;  drinking  cup,  77,  78 ;  dry 
sweeping,  78 ;  individual  pen- 
cils, 78  ;  lice  and  itch,  78,  79 ; 
small  ailments,  79-81  ;  conta- 
gious diseases,  8 1 ,  82 ;  instruction 
in  hygiene,  82,  83 ;  smoking 
and  other  bad  habits,  83 ;  worry 
and  overwork,  83  84;  physical 
exercises,  84,  85  ;  breathing  ex- 
ercises, 85;  sense  training  an 
indirect  aid,  85,  86 

Physical  exercises,  84,  85 

Picture  (Chapter  XIV) :  introduc- 
tion, 152;  treatment,  152,  153; 
sources,  1 53,  1 54 ;  use  in  con- 
nection with  written  work,  154; 
use  in  history,  196;  use  in  nature 
study,  212 

Picture  wire,  40 

Pictures,  10,  11  ;  decoration  by, 
17-19;  Prang,  18;  Rhine  prints, 
18;  Perry,  18,  41,  153;  mounts 
for,  31  ;  as  a  tool,  31-33  ;  school 
collection,  33 ;  use  of,  33,  34 ; 
Brown,  41.   i53 

Pitchpipe,  39 

Placards,  39 

Plant  life,  200  ;  fall  work  with,  200- 
202 ;  study  of,  in  winter,  203 ; 
study  of,  in  spring,  203-205 

Plants,  20 

Plasticine,  39 

Play  (Chapter  XXVII) :  teacher 
should  superintend,  277  ;  teacher 
should  not  control,  277,  278 ; 
kinds  of  games,  278,  279;  indoor 
recess,  279;  children  should  take 


[307] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 


part  in,  279 ;  noon  rest  time, 
279,  280 ;  in  connection  with 
regular  school  work,  280,  281 

Playing  store,  loi 

Poem  (Chapter  XV) :  devotional, 
89;  value  of  study,  155;  selec- 
tion and  sources,  1 55-1 57 ;  prep- 
aration for  teaching,  1 57  ;  teach- 
ing, 1 57, 1 58 ;  reproduction,  1 59 ; 
manner  of  reciting,  1 59 ;  illus- 
tration by  use  of  "  The  Rocky 
Mountain  Sheep,"  159-162  ;  list 
of  good  poems,  162-165;  in  his- 
tory, 196 

Position,  during  reading,  124;  in 
writing,  225,  226 

Post  cards,  32,  33 

Prang  pictures,  18 

Prang  Textbooks  of  Art  Instruc- 
tion, 220 

Preparation,  for  teaching,  i ;  of 
teacher  for  recitation,  51,  52; 
of  material,  59 ;  of  teacher  for 
poem,  1 57  ;  of  teacher  for  his- 
tory, 197,  198 

Prizes,  62 

Program,  for  first  day,  47,  48 ; 
regular,  49 ;  place  of  subjects 
in,  49,  50 ;  arrangements  for 
making  most  of  time,  50,  51 ; 
length    of    recitation    periods, 

51,  52;  written,  52;  changing, 

52,  53 ;  sample,  53-56 

Promotions,  63-65 

Pronunciation,  work  for,  in  read- 
ing, 122;  determining  pronun- 
ciation of  words,  129 

Punishment,  295,  296 
Pupil  government,  293 

Questioning,  268-270 
Questions,  needed  for  recitation, 
265,  266 

Raffia,  40,  249 

Railway  folders,  32 

Rank,  63 

Reading  (Chapter  X):  purpose, 
112;  primary,  1 1 2—1 2 1  ;  word 
method,  112;  object  and  action 


work,  112,  113;  use  of  rhymes, 
113,  114;  the  reading  chart,  114, 
115;  drill  cards,  i; 5 ;  other 
drills  for  sight  work,  115,  116; 
the  phonic,  or  phonetic,  method, 
116,  117;  learning  sounds,  117; 
recognition  of  word  through 
hearing  sounds,  117,118;  sound- 
ing words,  118;  need  of  con- 
tinued drill,  118;  phonetic  drills, 
1 18, 1 19;  sounds  should  continue 
to  be  basis  of  getting  words, 
119;  if  no  method  is  in  use,  119, 
120;  supplementary,  120,  121; 
advanced,  1 21-127;  difficulties 
and  general  method  of  treating, 
121,  122;  work  for  pronuncia- 
tion, 122;  work  for  understand- 
ing, 122,  123;  other  aids,  123; 
position  and  voice,  124;  inter- 
ruptions and  corrections,  124, 
125;  re-reading,  125,  126;  best 
material,  126,  127;  history,  191, 
192 

Recess,  278,  279 

Recitation  (Chapter  XXVI) :  in 
arithmetic,  103 ;  in  reading,  122- 
126;  verbatim,  in  history,  194; 
tactics  of  music,  23  i ;  conduct 
of  class  in  industrial  work,  256; 
preparation,  264 ;  ways  of  con- 
ducting, 264,  265 ;  questions  and 
topics  needed,  265,  266;  oral 
teaching,  or  development,  266, 
267  ;  assignment,  268 ;  question- 
ing, 268-270;  distribution  of 
questions,  270,  271 ;  attention  a 
characteristic  of  good,  271,  272  ; 
variety  a  help,  272  ;  reasons  for 
loss  of  attention  in,  272,  273 ;  re- 
sponsibility of  class,  273 ;  atti- 
tude of  class,  274 ;  characteristics 
of  a  teacher  helping,  274,  275  ; 
summary,  275,  276 

Reeds,  40,  250,  251 

Report  cards,  65 

Reproduction,  of  poem,  1 59 ;  of 
story,  168,  169 

Review,  in  geography,  187 ;  in 
history,  197 


[308] 


INDEX 


Ricks,  "  Object  Lessons,"  i8i 
"  Rocky  Mountain  Sheep  "  (Mary 

Austin),  the  study  of,  160-162 
Room  should  be  comfortable,  67- 

70 
Rulers,  39 

Sand  tray,  39 
School,  cold-air,  68 

School  Arts  Magazine,  220 

"  School  Freehand  Gymnastics  " 
(Bancroft),  84 

"  School  Needlework "  (Hap- 
good),  246 

School  officers,  teacher's  attitude 
toward,  5,  6 

Scrapbook,  40 

Scripture  reading,  88,  89 

Seatmg  plan,  39,  45,  46,  66 

Seed  dissemination,  202 

Sense  training,  85,  86 

Senses,  defects  of,  71-76;  train- 
ing, 85,  86 

Shrine  of  beauty,  21 

Sickness,  80-82 

Sign  marker,  40 

Smoking,  83 

Solids,  39 

Sounds,  learning  for  reading,  117; 
recognition  of  word  through 
hearing,  117,  118;  sounding 
words,  118;  need  of  drill  in,  118 

Sources  of  apparatus,  38-43.  See 
also  lists  at  ends  of  chapters 

Speaking  pieces,  259 

Special  Exercises  (Chapter  XXV) 
Friday  afternoon,  259;  speaking 
pieces,  259 ;  visitation  days,  260 
entertainments,  z6o,  261 ;  prep 
aration    of   material,   261,   262 
dressing    up,     262  ;    admission 
entertainments,  262,  263  ;  value 
of  entertainments,  263 

Spelling  (Chapter  XII) :  time  of 
beginning,  132;  manner  of  be- 
ginning, 132,  133;  series,  133- 
135;  learning  value  of  letters, 
135;  of  miscellaneous  words, 
135,  136;  oral  and  written  neces- 
sary, 136, 137;  oral,  137;  written. 


137  ;  study  of,  138,  139 ;  in  con- 
nection with  other  lessons,  139; 
encouraging  interest  in,  139, 
140;  combination  of  classes, 
140;  the  poor  speller,  141 

Splinters,  79,  80 

Starting  in  (Chapter  V) :  44-56 

Stenciling,  252 

Sticks,  39 

"Stories  to  Tell  to  Children" 
(Bryant),  167 

Story    (Chapter    XVI):    for   lan- 
guage drills,   146;    importance 
166;   kinds,  166;  sources,   166. 
167  ;  characteristics  of  a  good 
167 ;    manner  of  treating,   167 
168;  oral  reproduction,  168, 169 
written  reproduction,  169 ;  other 
forms     of     reproduction,     169 
dramatizing,     169,     170;    read 
ing,  170,  171  ;  list  of,  1 71-176 
foundation  for  history,  191 ;  use 
in  history,  196,  197 

Studio  papers,  38 

Study,  independent,  60 ;  of  spell- 
ing, 138,  139;  value  of  poem, 
1 55;  following  development,  267 

Supervision,  91 

Supplementary  reading,  120,  121 

Sweeping,  78 

Table,  homemade,  17 

Tables,  multiplication,  99 

Tappan,  The  Children's  Hour,  167 

Teacher  (Chapter  I) :  prepara- 
tion for  work,  i  ;  school  train- 
ing not  sufficient,  1,2;  personal 
appearance,  2-4 ;  position  in 
community,  4,  5;  attitude  toward 
school  officers,  5,  6;  makes  the 
school,  6 ;  equipment  {see  Equip- 
ment, Teacher's);  need  of  watch- 
fulness by,  46;,  responsible  for 
health,  67  ;  English  of,  142, 143 ; 
an  example  in  writing,  227 ;  char- 
acteristics of,  helping  to  a  good 
recitation,  274,  275;  duties  re- 
garding play,  277,  278;  influence 
of  character  in  discipline,  298 

Teeth,  77 


[309] 


EVERYDAY  PEDAGOGY 


Testing   knowledge   of  meaning, 

130 
Tests,  63 
Ticket  pins,  40 
Tools,   need   of,   25;    should    be 

ready,  28 
Topics,  study  of  history  by,  194 ; 

needed  in  a  recitation,  265,  266 
Towels,  79 
Toy  money,  39 
Training,  school  not  sufficient,  i ,  2 

Variety,  necessary  for  interest  in 
desk  work,  235,  236;  a  help  in 
recitation,  272 

Ventilation,  68,  69 

Visitation  days,  260 

Voice  in  reading,  124 

Waste,   of   material,    25,    26;    of 

time,  27,  28,  50-52 
Waste  paper,  22 
Weaving,  mats  for,  39,  248,  249 


White,  "How  to  Make  Baskets," 
250;  "More  Baskets  and  How 
to  Make  Them,"  250 

Word  method'  of  teaching  read- 
ing, 1 1 2-1 1 6 

Work,  preparation  of  teacher  for, 
51,  52,  57,  58;  important  and 
necessary,  58,  59 ;  study  work 
independent,  60 ;  change  of, 
61 ;  means  employed  forgetting 
done,  61,  62  ;  home,  62 

Worry,  83,  84 

Wounds,  80 

Writing  (Chapter  XXI) :  not  to 
be  begun  too  early,  222,  223  ; 
character  of,  223-225;  position, 
225,  226;  precept,  example,  and 
practice  needed,  226,  227 

Written  lessons,  63 ;  in  spelling, 
137  ;  in  language  work,  147, 148; 
use  of  picture  with,  1 54 

Yard,  24 


[310] 


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